Part IV: Death, and the Afterlife

"Cattle die, kinsmen die,

the self must also die;

but glory never dies,

for the man who is able to achieve it.

Cattle die, kinsmen die,

the self must also die,

I know one thing that never dies,

the reputation of each dead man."

-Havamal 76-77

H.R. Ellis Davidson wrote these words in her book The Road to Hel. There is truth to these words, as well preserved graves the world over give us a glimpse of how attitudes towards death, dying, and the afterlife developed. Therefore, it would be appropriate to begin this section by taking a look at what archeology tells us about how Norse viewed the afterlife.

The earliest burial methods in Scandinavia appear to be mass graves, which eventually moved to single graves. During the early Bronze Age, the dead where buried in fetal or near-fetal positions. Graves ranged in shape from ovular to V shaped. In either case, the grave seems to indicate hope for re-birth from the mother into this world or another. The ovular graves represent the womb, and the V shaped graves, with the body placed at the apex of the V, represent the spread legs of a woman giving birth. Often, these bodies were buried with possessions and food.

During the middle Bronze age, stone and oak coffins appear, though the custom didn’t appear to be wide spread. Burial in the earth still seemed to be the most common means of disposal of the dead. However, in the late Bronze Age, Cremation seems to be the predominant method of burial. Cremation urns have been found buried in small stone cists. Some of these urns were decorated with sun wheels. This is significant because "…the sun must have been to these people the symbol of resurrection par excellence; what more appropriate for a grave than its sign?" This evidence, along with burial in the fetal position, it seems from the earliest times in Scandinavia there was a conception of the afterlife.

The ship burial seems to have been a late, but important, development. However, as early as the late Bronze Age ship-shaped stone rings have been found around burial mounds. Actual burial in the ship seems to have been reserved for only the wealthy and powerful. The ship no doubt played an important role in the lives of the Norsemen. The ship was an important tool of Viking raiding parties. The famous Viking long ship was fast, easy to maneuver, and could just as easily navigate the dangerous fjords as it could a shallow river or the raging sea. The Norsemen depended on their ships for both war and commerce. Thus, it is no surprise to find the ship taking an important role in Scandinavian religion and culture. The ship is depicted in both the simple rock carvings of the Bronze Age and the more elegant art of later times. Boats have even been found as offerings in bogs. But what does the boat symbolize in relation to the after life? Davidson asks:

Other evidence seems to indicate a journey to reach the world of the afterlife. Archeologists have also uncovered buried horses and chariots; and there seems to have been a custom of burying the dead with iron-soled "Hel-shoes," implying the dead may need to walk to the afterlife. Additionally, there are at least two mythological accounts relating to an after death journey. First, Snorri records the mythic account of Balder’s funeral. It is said that after he was murdered, the gods placed him in his ship along with his horse and all his possessions. His wife was so stricken with grief she died and was also placed upon the boat. Thor hallowed the boat with his hammer, then it was set ablaze and pushed out to sea. The other mythic account involves the valkyrie Brynhild. In the poem Brynhild’s Ride to Hell, she is burnt on a pyre next to Sigurd on a wagon. She drives the wagon to Hel, and on the way encounters a giantess:

"I must tell you, I, the wise lady in the wagon,

you very stupid woman, if you wish to know,

how the heirs of Giuki treated me,

deprived me of love, and violated their oaths."

-Brynhild’s Ride to Hell: 5

Other myths of the gods Odin and Hermond depict the ride to Hel a long one; it takes nine days while riding Odin’s fabulous horse Sleipnir. So it seems reaching the Afterlife would be a long journey.

Of the funerary methods that indicate a journey, the ship burial is the most recent development. The oldest ship burial dates to about 600 CE. An Arab traveler, Ahmed Ibn Fadlan, recorded a ship burial ritual along the banks of the Volga in the year 992 CE. Ibn traveled extensively in Sweden and Russia, and he had a passion for religion and folklore. While visiting the Rus, he was able to witness the ship burial of a chieftain. He notes that the dead body was cared for and a female slave was asked to voluntarily die with her master. The woman was not allowed to withdraw once her choice was made, but she was treated with great care and given privileged status. The ceremony was under the supervision of a woman Ibn called the "Angel of Death." The body of the dead chieftain was stripped and given new clothes. Ibn notes that fruit, beer, and a lute were taken out of the grave then replaced by new fruit, herbs, food, and weapons. Various animals were also placed in the ship, including cows, horses, dogs, and hens. While this was going on, Ibn claims the condemned girl went from tent to tent and had sexual intercourse with various men. However, Davidson believes this part of the ritual to be made up, claiming Ibn characteristically placed episodes like this in some of his writings.

Here the funeral takes an unusual twist. The girl was taken to "something resembling a door frame" and lifted up three times, each time saying something in a language Ibn did not understand. Then the girl cut the head off of a hen and threw the body into the boat. Confused, Ibn asked an interpreter what she said. He responded:

From here, the girl is taken to the boat, strips off her jewelry and gives them to the daughters of the "Angel of Death," then partakes in funerary beer. The girl is then taken into a tent where six men have sexual intercourse with her (again, Davidson doubts this part of the funeral really happened), then she is strangled and stabbed to death. Finally, the ship is set ablaze. Ibn’s interpreter explained that they burned their dead so they would enter Paradise instantly, rather than be buried in the ground and eaten by worms.

So where might have this practice of cremation with all one’s worldly goods originated? We may never know. Snorri, though, indirectly gives us a possible idea. In the prologue to The Prose Edda, he explains that the gods were really once mortals, and the historical Odin had told his followers that they should be cremated with all their wealth so that they may join him in the western paradise he had created with all their riches. While this may settle the issue from Snorri’s point of view, it lacks little in the way of mythological support. There does seem to be some connection between cremation and the cult of Odin, though. It was probably assumed that followers of Odin were well versed in magic, and thus may have found some way to rise after death. Also, it was customary to burn exceptionally wicked men for fear their vengeful spirit might return.

Burial mounds were another major funerary method of the Norsemen, and one probably connected with the Vanir. Conceptions of life within the mound can vary. In some instances from literature, the inside of a burial mound could resemble Valhalla, with warriors eternally feasting and fighting. Or, the mound could be a place where the dead rested peacefully and retained an interest in the living. For example, Snorri believed that the historical Freyr was an ancient king of Sweden, and under his rule there was great peace and prosperity. After his death the people continued to perform sacrifices to him in his burial mound. While they did this, the land was said to continue to be prosperous.

The burial mound often took up a nature of it’s own. To stand upon one was considered a violation of the dead’s rest, as was attempting to rob it. Many sagas tell of living people entering burial mounds in hopes of stealing treasures buried with the dead, only to find themselves in a struggle with the mound’s inhabitant. There were exceptions to the rule of sitting on a burial mound, though. Kings were exempt from this rule. There are some instances where the king would sit in judgement upon one of these burial mounds, especially if it was the mound of one of his relatives. Oddly enough, the humble shepherd was also allowed the privilege of sitting on the mound. Quite simply, the shepherd needed to be above his flocks so he could watch over them. While the allowance of a king and a shepherd to sit on a burial mound may seem contradictory, it actually makes sense if the mounds are seen as connected with Freyr, for he is a god of peace and fertility. Additionally, he is also a warrior and associated with kingship in parts of Sweden. Both the king and the shepherd have duties that connect them to the well being of the land. The king is a protector and the shepherd raises animals vital for the economy. Thus, the king and the shepherd both fulfill duties associated with Freyr.

But this didn’t stop people from sitting on mounds anyway. It was entirely possible for a mortal who dared sit on a mound to go insane. However, sometimes a mortal could be rewarded for sitting on a mound. One of the sagas, Flateyjarbok, tells of a shepherd named Hallbjorn who habitually sat on the burial mound of a famous poet. Each night, the shepherd composed poems to the dead man, but to no avail, for he lacked skill in poetry. One night, while the shepherd slept on the mound, the dead poet came out of the mound and sat beside him, thanking him for his efforts. He then taught him a verse and told him that if he recited it, he would become a great poet. The next morning, Hallbjorn recited the verse (possibly a spell to Odin?) and sure enough, no longer found composing poetry difficult.

There seems to have been no one conception of the afterlife. Literature suggests the Norsemen knew of and believed in both resurrection and reincarnation. There is also evidence of the dead continuing to live in the grave as well.

The two well-known Viking visions of the afterlife involve Valhalla and Hel. Valhalla was home to the warriors who fall in battle or with honor, while Hel claimed those who died of sickness, old age, or who failed to achieve the glory necessary to enter Odin’s hall. However, Hel isn’t the fiery Hell of Christianity. It is more a kin to the Hades of Greek mythology. It is a place where the afterlife resembles life: life without glory and continue to exist in a state of neutrality. However, the wicked are punished in Hel. According to The Seeress’ Prophecy the wicked and oath-breakers wade in a stream of swords and daggers, where they are tormented with poison and by a wolf and serpent. Valhalla is the better known of the two afterlives. Here is where the honored dead reside, spending their days feasting and fighting.

It is possible that the views of the Norse afterlife were influenced from the earliest times by the hunter/warriors and the more peaceful farmers. The people who worshiped the Aesir were more likely to use cremation and ship burial as their funerary ritual. The people who worshiped the Vanir were more likely to be buried in the howe, or burial mound. The afterlife would truly reflect the life the individual led on earth.