As long as humanity has had religion, there has always been the question of good and evil. Philosophers and theologians have struggled with this factor of the human existence and tried to peg down its cause. Philosophically, evil has been attributed to disobedience to natural law, ignorance, or simply the absence of good; theologically, evil can be traced to straying from God's law or, in some cases, a supernatural entity driven by hate, greed, anger, or pride. Like most sacred texts, the Bible offers some answers to the question of the essence and origin of evil The answer varies between the Old and New Testaments. In the Hebrew Bible, evil can be traced to disobeying Torah (for Israel) and is evident in committing violent acts against one's neighbors (for everyone else). The religion that developed into Christianity, however, keeps these ideas but adds a new card to the deck: evil can come from the supernatural world. One entity in particular from this supernatural host appears to be the root of all evil: and his name is Satan.

But how did various views on this malevolent demon develop? The word "satan" first appears in the Old Testament. In Hebrew, the word can be used as a noun or a verb. According to author of the Anchor Bible Dictionary (ABD):

"The problem arises when one attempts to select the best English equivalent for Heb satan, especially since satan lacks a cognate in any of the Semitic languages. The choice appears to be between 'accuse,' 'slander,' and 'be an adversary.'"

-ABD, page 985

The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible (IDB) adds "obstruct" or "oppose" to the list of possible translations. The meaning of the word depends on the context in which it is used. Satan can represent an earthly opponent, military threat, or someone opposing the writer (as in Psalm 109, where the writer asks God to bring an accuser, a satan, upon his tormentor). Sometimes, the word clearly indicates something more than a human aggressor. These are the celestial satans.

When used as a noun, satan can describe an opponent of some type. The generals and kings of opposing nations are sometimes described as "satans" to Israel, clearly implying nothing more than a human opponent. For example, the Philistines complained that David would become a "satan" to them (1 Sam. 29:4). However, sometimes satan implies a slandering function. The best known example of this type of satan occurs in the first two chapters of Job. Footnotes from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible translate the use of the word as "Accuser." Here the name implies a member of the divine council taking the role of the angel who asks God to put Job to the test.

The writer of second Isaiah would have had no need for a supernatural being separate from God to explain evil. As Isaiah 45: 7 explains, the LORD creates good and evil. If disaster fell upon Israel, it wasn't due to the actions of an archfiend opposed to God, but rather it was the fault of the Israelites for disobeying the LORD. Nevertheless, "Nowhere in the OT does Satan appear as a distinctive demonic figure, opposed to God and responsible for all evil (IDB, page 224)."

Sometimes satan implies a supernatural opponent. The earliest appearance of one of these celestial satans in the Old Testament occurs in the Book of Numbers. Chapters 22-24 tell the story of a seer named Balaam, who had the power to bless and curse people. The king of Moab wished for Balaam to curse the nation of Israel so that he might be able to defeat them. Balaam tells the king that the LORD doesn't want him to go, but eventually he acts against God's wishes. While on his way to meet with the king, he encounters an angel standing in his way: "God's anger was kindled because he was going, and the angel of the LORD took his stand in the road as his adversary (Numbers 22:22)." The angel is not called by a specific name, but he is referred to as an "angel of the LORD." Thus, we know the angel is working for God and carrying out his will. The angel acts in the typical fashion of most of the celestial satans in the Old Testament: he opposes someone at God's command.

The first appearance of a satan that can be thought of as a specific figure occurs in 1st Chronicles 21:1: "Satan stood up against Israel, and incited David to count the people of Israel." Here, the celestial being is referred to as hassatan, or "The Satan." This act angers the LORD, leading scholars to believe this is an angelic figure that acts against God's will.

It can be argued that the satan that appears in the Book of Job is also a distinct figure, but he is not the powerful and semi-cosmic figure of later times. The HarperCollins Study Bible prints satan with a capital "S," but lists in the footnotes that the actual text reads ha-satan ("The Accuser"). When this Satan first meets up with God, the LORD asks: "Where have you come from?" The Satan replies that he was walking the earth. At this point, God brings up the blameless Job and the Satan asks for permission to test him. When God does grant Satan permission to test Job, the Accuser follows the requests the LORD makes. He promises to test Job without not harming or killing him. This satan does perform deeds that can be considered evil, for Job's family and fortunes suffer needlessly. Even though Job is rewarded in the end with "...twice as much as he had before (Job 42: 10)", his children were all killed in one quick, sudden accident. This satan is not all-powerful, though. He acts only with God's permission. But the question still remains if Job's satan was an angel filling a role or if he was a specific figure.

So what basis can be used to determine if Job's satan is a specific figure or an angel filling a temporary role? Elaine Pagels states:

"...the storyteller plays on the similarity between the sound of the Hebrew satan and shut, the Hebrew word 'to roam,' suggesting that the satan's special role in the heavenly court is that of a kind of roving intelligence agent..."

-The Origin of Satan, page 41

Pagels then goes on to compare such a figure with the police and intelligence officers of the Persian court who would, like Job's satan, look for signs of disloyalty. James Crenshaw, a scholar who translated the Book of Job for the HCSB, agrees. He comments that the use of the word satan here "...indicates that an office is involved, something like a CIA agent (page 751)." By this line of reasoning, the scholar can argue that Job's satan was an angel filling a specific role at the time. Any angel could act as an accuser if he noticed a lack of piety within one of the LORD's followers.

However, the IDB states that Satan's original name may have been Satenel, but his later actions of leading the divine revolt would have caused the suffix -el to be cut from his name. Thus Satan lost his divine element. If this is the case, then Satan's name originally meant something to the effect of "God Accuses" or "God Opposes." Most of the angels' names have something to do with their function. For example, Raphael ("God has healed") tells Tobias how to dispel the hold the demon Asmodeus has over Sarah, allowing the two to get married:

"When you enter the bridal chamber, take some of the fish's liver and heart, and put them on the embers of the incense. An odor will be given off; the demon will smell it and flee, and will never be seen near her any more."

-Tobit 6: 17-18

By these lines, it is not unreasonable to assume that the satan in Job may have been a specific divine figure, an angel whose duty was to test the faithfulness of God's followers. If such a being named Satanel existed or was know, he may have been responsible for the incident involving David's census in 1st Chronicles.

The final appearance of a satan in the Old Testament occurs in chapter 3 of the Book of Zechariah. The prophet has a vision in which he sees an Angel of the LORD, the high priest Joshua, and the Satan. The Accuser is claiming that Joshua is unfit to serve his duties, but the angel steps forward to rebuke the satan. Here the word ha-satan is used, indicating a title rather than a proper name. Here the question of who the satan is takes on the same mystery as in Job: is the satan opposing Joshua a figure like the hypothetical Satanel or is he an angel taking on a specific duty?

With the exception of the scene in Chronicles, satan appears as an agent of God, not opposed to him in any way. Such a view is necessary to maintain the perspective of God as an all-powerful creator. For if God is in fact all-powerful, then all things in the universe must be subject to him. But the world of the Jews in the Old Testament was not privileged to permanency.

The kingdom that God had instructed his followers to build on Earth was to come to an end, if it had even started, that is. Israel faced a time of chaotic change. They had been through a long history of conquest and exile. They were a people who, in antiquity, had taken over another nation's land. But now they found themselves in exile. First with the Assyrians and Babylonians, then later the Greeks and Romans. Times were grim for a nation that had once thought they were God's chosen people. No doubt many a Jew found himself asking the LORD why he had allowed the opposing army to slaughter his family and cast him from his home. Changes in Jewish religious thought were inevitable. The "...theory that disaster was a divine retribution for apostasy had become increasingly insupportable, both emotionally and intellectually (IDB, page 225)."

To come to grips with this harsh new world, Judaism adopted a dualistic theory, perhaps with Persian influences. Rather than view their beloved LORD as the source of both good and evil, it would become more satisfying to believe that God had a rival. Who would be a better figure to peg down that an entity whose name could be translated as "the Adversary?" This new idea allowed the Rabbis to re-interpret previous scriptures. The serpent in the garden, the testing of Abraham, and the worshipping of the Golden Calf could now be explained as the workings of this supreme evil. God could be cleansed of any sort of fault, cruelty, or weakness because now he had an enemy that tempted mankind. This new figure in Jewish theological thought also changed their world-view. Earth was no longer just a place for God to exert his will, but it was a battleground for the forces of good and evil. As Satan's role in Judaism grew, so did the stories of his origin. He became identified with the "Sons of God" who mated with human women in Genesis. He was also believed to have led a revolt against God, an act that caused him to be cast from heaven.

Hellenization, or at least the desire to be Hellenized, also played a part in this change of attitude toward Satan. While under the rule of Antiochus (198-187 BCE), Jerusalem was subject to a number of reforms. Circumcision and observance of Torah were banned and the Greek way of life was set to replace the old. Naturally, many Jews opposed this new lifestyle. But not all Jews were quick to condemn the Hellenistic life. Especially among the upper class, a movement began to embrace this new system. By adopting Greek ways, they would be able to govern themselves and take advantage of mutual defense treaties. They would also be able to receive a Greek education and participate in the Olympics. However, traditionalist Jews pointed to various scriptural passages about how God would punish those who strayed from Torah. Such thinkers began to wonder who was really a Jew (wanting to keep with Torah) and who was their potential enemy (wanting to adopt foreign ways). It became common to identify these Hellenized Jews with hassatan, a trend that became common in the early development of the Christian church and still seems to have lingered into the current day.

At the time before Jesus' birth, the world of Israel was in trouble. Judaism was facing confusing times. Their Greek and Roman rulers were either tolerant of Judaism or against it. In any case, the Jews were fed up with being under foreign rule: they wanted independence. Not surprisingly, the Jews desired a savior, the messiah. Ancient prophesies of a savior who would arise to become a light to the world helped keep hope alive for some during these hard times. Expectations of this savior varied among those who expected him. Some looked for a philosopher/teacher and others watched for a military hero who would forcefully evict the invading armies. So if such a hero were to arise, would not the archfiend oppose him? Satan had developed steadily since the inter-testamental period. Anthony Mercatante writes that at...

"...Jesus' time the Devil was viewed as a corporeal figure, a demonic being who ruled the world and was the founder of an empire that constantly struggled with and counteracted the Kingdom of God."

-Good and Evil in Myth and Legend, page 51

There are two major episodes where Satan's character comes into play in the New Testament. They are the temptation of Jesus and the Armageddon.

Mark, Matthew, and Luke all record Satan's temptations of Jesus. The temptation occurs after Jesus has received baptism. Afterwards, he went into the wilderness where Satan tempts Jesus three times. Mark's account is the shortest:

"And the Spirit immediately drove him out into the wilderness. He was in the wilderness forty days, tempted by Satan; and he was with the wild beasts; and angels waited on him."

-Mark 1:12-13

The style here is typical of Mark. He commonly uses the word "immediately" and rarely bogs down with details.

Matthew and Luke's accounts are about the same length and contain similar information. First, he asks Jesus to turn stones into bread. Then, the Devil offers to give unto him the kingdoms of the world, which Satan declares as his own. Finally, Jesus is taken to the top of the temple and challenged to throw himself off to see if the LORD would protect him. Jesus resists all three temptations, and each of his replies indicates the sovereignty of God to the world. Having failed to tempt him, Satan departs. "Jesus's [sic] Temptations by the Devil are to test whether Jesus's [sic] calling, which he received at his baptism, was genuine (Mercatante, page 50)." There are few differences between Luke and Matthew's accounts. Luke chooses to place the temptation on the top of the temple second and the temptation on the mountain last. He also doesn't mention angels waiting on Jesus. In addition, Luke ends his temptation narrative by saying "When the devil had finished every test, he departed from him until an opportune time (Luke 4: 13)."

During the temptation scene, Satan is hardly the demonic power he was turned into during the inter-testamental period. He fills a role similar to the satan in Job. He does not oppose God, but rather appears as a tester figure. However, there are some differences between the satan in Job and the Gospels. The Old Testament clearly uses the "Accuser" translation of the word, but the gospels use different terminology to describe the tempter. Matthew and Luke simply call him the devil, derived from the Greek word diabolos ("adversary"). Mark, however, specifically refers to him as Satan.

After the temptation, Satan takes a more sinister role. He was believed to cause men to do evil deeds and possess people with unholy spirits. Some sources say he caused Judas to betray Jesus and even desired to lead Peter astray. He is referred to by a multitude of names, including the deceiver of the world, the dragon or ancient serpent (Revelation 12: 9), the father of lies (John 8: 44), and a disguised angel of light. However, it appears he sometimes reverts back to his role as God's satan, for twice in the New Testament (1 Corinthians 5:5 and 1 Timothy 1:20) converts are warned that God can turn people over to Satan for punishment.

Many people are familiar with Satan's role in the Book of Revelation. In this book, much of the folklore developed about Satan comes together. We see his side as the fallen angel come forth as he leads his angels into war, only to be defeated:

"And war broke out in heaven; Michael and his angels fought against the dragon. The dragon and his angels fought back, but they were defeated, and there was no longer any place for them in heaven. The great dragon was thrown down, that ancient serpent, who is called the Devil and Satan, the deceiver of the world-he was thrown down to the earth, and his angels were thrown down with him."

-Revelation 12: 7-9

Satan does everything within his power to take control of the world, only to be defeated in the end. He will be bound for a thousand years then let loose (Revelation 20: 3), muster an army (Revelation 20: 7), then finally be defeated and imprisoned eternally in a lake of fire and brimstone (Revelation 20: 10). Like in the Old Testament, Satan cannot act unless given permission by God.

So what can be concluded about the Satan and his role in the Bible? The character of the Satan developed with the times of the people who believe in his existence. At first the Satan appears as a figure subservient to God's will, just like everything else in the universe. How people perceived him reflected the state of society at the time. Early on, in Numbers, the Hebrews seemed to be in a state of promise and potential. They were winning in their struggles to overcome their enemies and no doubt they believed God was on their side:

"But the LORD said to Moses: 'Do not be afraid of him; for I have given him into your hand, with all his people, and all his land. You shall do to him as you did to King Sihon of the Amorites, who ruled Heshbon.' So they killed him, his sons, and all his people, until there was no survivor left; and they took possession of his land."

-Numbers 21: 34-35

Thus, in the story of Balaam, the satan acts in Israel's interest by preventing the seer from harming Israel. Satan's role in the book of Chronicles indicates political turmoil, for Satan has somehow caused David, one of the most important figures in Jewish and Christian folklore, to sin against God. While a date for Job is uncertain, it may indicate a time when Israel needed to go through an examination of how strong their faith in the LORD was. Job believes he has done nothing wrong, yet he is somehow being punished. As shown by Satan's role in Job's dilemma, Israel may have needed to be reminded that God is watching. The inter-testamental period is marked by a series of rapid changes, and this is reflected in the myth of Satan. During this time, theories on his origin and powers proliferate. It also becomes customary to associate one's enemies with him. This trend of believing Satan is behind an opponent continued into the time of the New Testament and beyond. Satan was blamed for Judas' betrayal of Jesus and early missionaries held fast to the belief that non-Christians were in fact being led by the devil. The Satan reaches the final stage in his development in the Book of Revelation. Many scholars believe that during the time the book was written, Nero began wide scale persecution of Christians. To deal with this problem, the people needed a message of hope that one day, their tormentor would be punished (Revelation 20: 10), they would be delivered, and God's kingdom would reign supreme (Revelation 22: 1-5). But the myth of Satan is not just a phenomenon for an ancient time. It allows people even today to deal with the problem of evil and the question of why God could allow such a being to act.

1. Gaster, T.H., "Satan" in The Interpreter's Bible Dictionary, c. 1962, Abingdon Press

2. Hamelton, Victor; "Satan" in the Anchor Bible Dictionary, c. 1992, Doubleday

3. HarperCollins Study Bible, c. 1993, HarperCollins Publishers, New York

4. Mercatante, Anthony S.: Good and Evil in Myth and Legend, c.1978, New York

5. Pagels, Elaine: The Origin of Satan, c. 1995, New York