The Seminole Wars of the Nineteenth Century were a series of conflicts that involved the American, Native American, and African populations of the territory that became Florida. During the three-hundred years of Spanish and French settlement of the region, the native peoples had co-existed with the European colonists peacefully enough, but relations with English-speaking settlers were strained. Wars between Southeastern tribes such as the Creek and the United States resulted in the retreat of thousands of Native Americans of different backgrounds into the Florida peninsula. This unique mix of people called themselves "Seminole" meaning "runaway" in the Creek language.

By the beginning of the Nineteenth Century, the fertile lands of Florida tempted growing numbers of Anglo settlers; the Americans were interested not only in the agricultural potential of the region, but also the hundreds of former slaves who had runaway from Georgia and the Carolinas to the relative safety of the Florida interior. Tensions increased as Americans trespassed onto tribal territory and slave-owners accused the Seminole of illegally sheltering their runaway property. The War of 1812 formalized hostilities between the United States and the native peoples when several Southeastern tribes, including the Seminole's neighbors the Creeks, sided with the British.

Even after peace was declared between the United States and Great Britain in 1814, skirmishes with the Seminole continued to escalate until war was declared in 1817. The United States went to war to establish itself as a power in Florida and to recapture the many runaway slaves who sought refuge in the interior. General (later President) Andrew Jackson distinguished himself during the First Seminole War (1817-1821). Seminole leader Billy Bowlegs proved a formidable opponent to Jackson whose fame was only overshadowed by that of the great Osceola who led the Seminole during the Second War (1835-1842). During this conflict, the Seminole fought to remain on their lands in Florida, but they were defeated and most were removed to reservations in Oklahoma. The Third Seminole War (1855-1858) involved the few remaining Seminole who were fought to protect the last lands under their control: the wetlands of Southern Florida. Their determination wore down the United States; the Florida Seminole were ultimately allowed to remain on their lands. The chronology of these hostilities can be misleading for while three distinct periods of warfare are recognized, the Seminole continued to resist American hegemony throughout the Nineteenth Century. Students, therefore, should probably consider studying the entire century of struggle and not just the few years of actual warfare.

In preparing this pathfinder, I considered two levels of inquiry. The first level is designed for students who want basic information about the Seminole Wars and Seminole Tribe written in a clear, easy to understand style. Encyclopedias, atlases, biographical sources, library catalogs, and back-of-book bibliographies are emphasized for this type of research. These resources are indicated by a . More advanced searches for students and teachers build on this basic level using indexes, published bibliographies, and online searches to access scholarship on the Seminole Wars, the history of Native Americans, and Florida History. Resources for this more advanced search are indicated by a . The materials represented in this pathfinder were found to be good all-around sources that lead to further information on the Seminole Wars. All of them were accessed through either the online catalog and online indexes at the University of Texas' Perry Castaneda Library or through the online catalog of the Austin Public Library. I placed the catalog search at in the middle of the pathfinder because I believe it important for students to look beyond the scope of the library shelf for information on a research topic. The access of otherwise unavailable materials through interlibrary loan and other techniques allows the student to explore resources beyond the four walls of the library.

Note for the student: Anyone can take part in historical research: the seeker does not need to have a fancy degree or a library full of books as long as he or she is willing to track down clues. There is a whole world of information available to everyone who knows where to look. Indexes, bibliographies, journals, encyclopedias, dictionaries, and online resources, in addition to books, are valuable tools for finding answers to even the most difficult question. Indeed the purpose of this project is to guide middle school students and their teachers to resources on the Seminole Wars beyond those found in the classroom or school library. Never give up a project just because the book isn't on the shelf: there may not be anything written in book form specifically on that topic but that does not mean the information is not out there. The most important factor in historical research is time. Always plan ahead and allow for delays. Some of the resources can be easily and quickly accessed through the internet, but the most important ones may have to acquired through less speedy means such as interlibrary loan. This pathfinder will hopefully guide the user to informative sources for any level of inquiry on the Seminole Wars, whether it be a basic or more advanced search.

Annotated Bibliography for the Seminole Wars Pathfinder.
 
 

ENCYCLOPEDIAS and other basic reference works.

Ciment, James. Scholastic Encyclopedia of the North American Indian. New York: Scholastic Reference, 1996.

Look under Seminole for a two-page spread that tells the history of the Seminole through tables, photographs, and profiles of tribal leaders. The information featured in this volume may not have any more information than others, but it is formatted with a layout that should be appealing to pre-teen student. This work incorporates compact articles on several topics with high-tech graphics and boldfaces the many terms used that are featured in a mini-dictionary/glossary at the back of the book. While not extensive in its information, it is a good quick-reference for junior-high students.
 

Dictionary of the Indian Tribes of the Americas. Newport Beach, CA: American Indian Publications, 1995.
 

This three volume set gives a comprehensive history of all of the major and many of the lesser known tribes of native North Americans. The entries give the geographical location, biographical information on noted members, descriptions of rituals, dress and customs, and illustrations where possible. Profiles of pueblos, reservations, and other communities are featured in the alphabetic listing. Perhaps the most useful aspect of this dictionary is the inclusion of bibliographical sources in all of the articles--even for more obscure tribes. The listings under Seminole are extensive and should be read by any researcher wanting information on the tribe or the Seminole Wars.
 

Handbook of North American Indians, Volume IV: History of Indian-White Relations. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1988.
 

This ambitious twenty volume work published by the Smithsonian Institution is probably the most comprehensive resource on the native peoples of North America. The fourth volume of the series, History of Indian-White Relations, includes the article "Indian-United States Military Situation, 1775-1848" by John K. Mahon, that discusses the Seminole Wars in a broader context than some of the other resources. Mahon's entry includes maps and illustrations from the time of the Seminole Wars depicting pro- and anti- Seminole sentiments.
 
 

Ready Reference American Indians. Vol. III. Harvey Markowitz, consulting editor. Pasadena, CA: Salem Press, Inc: 1995.
 

A concise, two-page summary of the wars is located under the heading Seminole Wars. This three volume work is designed for the quick access of information on Native Americans. Each encyclopedic entry begins with a table indicating the culture's geographic area, the language group of the people, the primary location of the tribe, and the population of that tribe according to the 1990 Census. The article is then organized chronologically by century. Major works on the topic are featured in short bibliographies following each article and the editors included extensive cross listings to other relevant topics treated elsewhere in the work. Other subject headings to search under include Seminole; African-American/American Indian Relations; Bowlegs, Billy; Creek War; and Osceola
 

A HISTORICAL ATLAS will give the researcher an understanding of the geographical realities faced during the Seminole Wars.
 

Waldman, Carl and Molly Braun. Atlas of the North American Indian. New York: Facts on File, 1985.
 

The summary of the Seminole Wars on pages 122 and 123 was about the most concise and well written of any researched during this project. While the maps were only two color, they featured the names and dates of what must have been all of the major battles of the Seminole Wars. This work also graphically recounts the struggles of between Native American and Indian during the history of the Southeast and the rest of America.
 
 

BIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES on the people who took part in the conflict.
 

Waldman, Carl. Who Was Who in Native American History: Indians and Non-Indians from Early Contacts through 1900.
 

This was perhaps the most amazing reference work I looked at on this project. Because the topic "the Seminole Wars" is very specific, few resources devoted more than a page or two's worth of reference. In this Who Was Who, every key individual who fought in the Seminole Wars was listed and cross referenced against the other participants. Any featured illustrations were line drawings, but the entries more than made up for any lack of color or graphic power. Not only were the biographical portraits concisely written in an easy to read style, they were printed in a legible-size type. Easily overlooked warriors from all sides were granted respectably sized entries. This book gets the top prize. Look under the name of the Seminole tribesman or the American military leader you are interested in learning more about. Some good choices are "Osceola," "Alligator," "Jumper," "Billy Bowlegs," "Major Frances Dade," and "General Duncan Clinch."
 

LIBRARY CATALOGS The two libraries that were used for this project, the Austin Public Library and the General Libraries of the University of Texas at Austin, have World Wide Web access to their online catalogs.
 

Austin Public Library: http://www.library.ci.austin.tx.us

University of Texas at Austin: http://www.lib.utexas.edu
 
 

MONOGRAPHS written for middle-school aged students.
 

Andryszewski, Tricia. The Seminoles: People of the Southeast. Brookfield, CT: 1995.
 

This book is recounts the history of the Seminole peoples and the Seminole Wars in an easy to read format. Colorful photographs give a graphic account of life among the Florida tribes. Several projects for children are featured including a recipe for the preparation of hominy, the rules for playing Seminole Pole Ball, and the retelling of a Seminole folk tale. Chapter four is devoted to the Second Seminole War focusing mainly on the triumph and later death of the great Seminole leader Osceola. Most useful is its bibliography which includes works focusing on several aspects of Seminole life culture and it indicates which books are geared for children.
 

Garbarino, Merwyn S. The Seminole. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1989.
 

Written in a slightly more challenging style, this book covers the history of the Seminole tribe and the Seminole Wars more extensively than the Andryszewski work. While there are fewer color photographs, Gabarino incorporates several illustrations, including political cartoons, that were created during the time of the Seminole Wars thereby giving the student an idea of how the United States perceived its Seminole enemy. Unfortunately there are no cartoons depicting how the Seminole viewed the U.S. The Seminole also features an informative glossary and a "Seminole at a Glance" fact sheet at the end of the book. Its bibliography, while less comprehensive than that in the Andreyszewski work, mentions other resources suitable for middle school readers.
 
 

RESEARCH METHODS are particularly useful for more advanced searches.
 

Haas, Marilyn L. Indians of North America: Methods and Sources for Library Research. Hamden, CT: Library Professional Publications, 1983.
 

This is the best all-around resource on Native American history outlines basic and advanced search strategies. Haas' landmark work begins with a comprehensive explanation of subject classification and call numbers with examples in the Library of Congress and Dewey Decimal systems. Online databases, library catalogs, handbooks, encyclopedias, and directories are discussed and described as are tips for best utilizing them. The last section of the book consists of two bibliographies: an annotated listing of books under subject headings such as Folklore, Captives, Libraries, and Missions, and an non-annotated bibliography on the Tribes of North America. While it is written in a clear style, younger students may balk at the methodology described. Teachers and older students, however, may find this an invaluable resource. I would recommend it to anyone planning to study Native American history.
 

Hill, Edward E. Guide to Records in the National Archives of the United States Relating to American Indians. Washington DC: National Archives and Records Service, 1981.
 

This book outlines what resources on Native Americans are being preserved at the National Archives. While not every researcher will have the opportunity or need to travel to the National Archives, an awareness of what is available can be an asset to any project. Hill discusses the history and classification of many types of records such as those of the Land Management Bureau and the correspondence and of the Seminole Tribal Agency. Several sections were devoted to resources on armed conflict between the United States military and Native Americans including records from the Seminole Wars. Look under the heading Seminole Indians -- Military and Naval Operations.
 
 
 
 
 
 

SUBJECT BIBLIOGRAPHIES about the Seminole Wars and other Native American subjects.
 

Hirschfelder, Arlene B. Mary Gloyne Byler, Michael A. Dorris. Guide to Research on North American Indians. Chicago: American Library Association, 1983.
 

Compilation of English-language sources on Native American peoples from across the United States and Canada including a few important sources on Mexico, Central, and South America. Each title is accompanied by lengthy annotations that identify the author by organization of origin, the tribes associated or mentioned within, and information about the source's citations. The entire bibliography is arranged alphabetically by author and is divided into topics such as general studies, political organizations, Autobiographies, Biographies, Religion, Philosophy, Law, Education, and Literature. This book is best used in conjunction with Haas' Indians of North America, but is a good source for titles when used alone.
 

Prucha, Francis Paul. Bibliographical Guide to the History of Indian-White Relations in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977.

_____. Indian-White Relations in the United States: A Bibliography of Works Published, 1975-1980. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1982.
 

These companion bibliographies are the result of sources uncovered during a lifetime of research by a Jesuit professor of history at Marquette University. These two works, the original 1977 version and a 1982 update, include citations of many hard to find sources published over the past two centuries. All of the citations are arranged alphabetically by author under such subject headings as Military Relations, Indian Education, Legal Relations, and Indian Affairs. Prucha also discusses the acquisition and use of materials from the National Archives and outlines a guide to sources such as Indian newspapers. Perhaps the most useful feature of Prucha's bibliographies is his extensive index; the lists can be searched using the name of an individual, an institution, or an event.
 

The American South: A Historical Bibliography. Volumes I & II. Jessica S. Brown, editor. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, Inc, 1986.
 

While not strictly a source on Native Americans, Seminole life and culture are part of Southern History and are well treated within this work. This publication by the historical reference service ABC-Clio includes over 8000 citations of resources covering the history of the American South and other specialized topics such as Images of the South and Southern Society, the Southern economy, and Southern Politics. An entire section in Volume II is devoted to Indians in Southern History. A search in the index under Seminole and Seminole Wars yielded several resources of potential use to a teacher or including several first hand accounts of veterans.
 

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES specifically geared for the educator are easily accessed through the ERIC family of indexes, abstracts, and reports. These are available on the World Wide Web and can be accessed through the UT Library Online Web Page at http://www.lib.utexas.edu (select Indexes, Abstracts, and Full Text)
 

ERIC, an acronym for Education Resources Information Center, is the general term used for the government-sponsored service that indexes, abstracts, and publishes information on all aspects of education. ERIC information is available online through University of Texas as ERIC (OVID Online), but it can also be accessed through the two bound sources RIE (Resources in Education) and CIJE (Current Index to Journals in Education).

INDEXES & ABSTRACTS of scholarly literature on the subject of the Seminole Wars can be accessed through several indexes and search engines available on the UT Online web page (see above for internet address) including
 

Social Science Abstracts

Humanities Abstracts
 

Social Science Abstracts and Humanities Abstracts are two separate publications with online access that have brief summaries articles published in English language periodicals from all over the world. The service for both online resources is provided by First Search and includes book reviews, interviews, biographical sketches, scholarly replies, and obituaries. The interface will search by subject, author, title, phrase, and keyword thereby easily accessing the information needed.
 

A superb JOURNAL, the Florida Historical Quarterly, has published several favorably reviewed articles in recent years concerning the Seminole Wars and it continues to be a viable resource for students of the American Southeast. This periodical is the organ of the Florida Historical Association and it publishes articles that have undergone peer-review, therefore the conclusions of its featured authors have been judged sound by fellow historians. Regular perusal will allow the reader to learn about the latest issues researched on Florida and its peoples.
 
 
 
 

To perform a BASIC SEARCH, follow the steps marked by a

The ADVANCED SEARCH continues with steps indicated by a
 

ENCYCLOPEDIAS are a great place to start. This way you can understand the basic chronology of the conflicts and identify some of the major personalities for later study. Suggested headings include: Seminole, Seminole Wars, and Osceola..
 

Ciment, James. Scholastic Encyclopedia of the North American Indian. New York: Scholastic Reference, 1996.

Look under Seminole for a two-page spread that tells the history of the Seminole through tables, photographs, and profiles of tribal leaders.
 

Dictionary of the Indian Tribes of the Americas. Vol. III. Newport Beach, CA: American Indian Publications, 1995.

Search under Seminole and check the extensive bibliography for possible future resources.

Ready Reference American Indians. Vol. III. Harvey Markowitz, consulting editor. Pasadena, CA: Salem Press, Inc: 1995.

A concise, two-page summary of the wars is located under the heading Seminole Wars. Other subject headings to search under include Seminole; African-American/American Indian Relations; Bowlegs, Billy; Creek War; and Osceola
 
 

A HISTORICAL ATLAS will provide maps of the Seminole Wars.
 

Waldman, Carl and Molly Braun. Atlas of the North American Indian. New York: Facts on File, 1985.

This reference work features a very good summary of the Seminole Wars, maps of the major battles, and graphics.
 

BIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES describe the people who took part in the wars.
 

Waldman, Carl. Who Was Who in Native American History: Indians and Non-Indians from Early Contacts through 1900. New York: Facts on File, 1990.

Look under the name of the Seminole tribesman or the American military leader you are interested in learning more about. Some good choices are "Osceola," "Alligator," "Jumper," "Billy Bowlegs," "Major Frances Dade," and "General Duncan Clinch."
 

LIBRARY CATALOGS indicate the availability of books. Try the catalog at your school library or public library. The two libraries used to create this pathfinder, Austin Public Library and the General Libraries of the University of Texas at Austin, have World Wide Web access to their online catalogs. Their internet addresses are:
 

Austin Public Library: http://www.library.ci.austin.tx.us

University of Texas at Austin: http://www.lib.utexas.edu

This concludes the BASIC SEARCH. By now you should have some information on the Seminole Wars or at least a list of books to request through Interlibrary Loan. Ask your school or public librarian for assistance. Students and teachers wishing to expand upon this basic research strategy for a more ADVANCED SEARCH should continue this pathfinder.
 
 

Sources that describe RESEARCH METHODS are particularly useful for more advanced searches.
 

Haas, Marilyn L. Indians of North America: Methods and Sources for Library Research. Hamden, CT: Library Professional Publications, 1983.

This is the best all-around resource on Native American history outlines basic and advanced search strategies.
 
 

SUBJECT BIBLIOGRAPHIES lead the researcher directly to scholarly books and articles written about the Seminole Wars and other Native American subjects.
 

Hirschfelder, Arlene B. Mary Gloyne Byler, Michael A. Dorris. Guide to Research on North American Indians. Chicago: American Library Association, 1983.

Compilation of English-language sources on Native American peoples from across the United States and Canada including a few important sources on Mexico, Central, and South America.
 

Prucha, Francis Paul. Bibliographical Guide to the History of Indian-White Relations in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977.

_____. Indian-White Relations in the United States: A Bibliography of Works Published, 1975-1980. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1982.

Perhaps the most useful feature of Prucha's bibliographies is his extensive index; the lists can be searched using the name of an individual, an institution, or an event.
 

The American South: A Historical Bibliography. Volumes I & II. Jessica S. Brown, editor. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, Inc, 1986.

An entire section in Volume II is devoted to Indians in Southern History. Search in the index under Seminole and Seminole Wars .
 
 

Teaching materials and other EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES specifically geared for the educator are easily accessed through the ERIC family of indexes, abstracts, and reports. These are available in print form and on the World Wide Web. The online version can be accessed through the UT Library Online Web Page at http://www.lib.utexas.edu (select Indexes, Abstracts, and Full Text)
 

INDEXES & ABSTRACTS of scholarly literature on the subject of the Seminole Wars can be accessed through several indexes and search engines available on the UT Online web page (see above for internet address) including
 

Social Science Abstracts

Humanities Abstracts
 

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