What in the United States from "A History of the Nineteenth Century Year by Year" by Edwin Emerson, Jr., edited by C.A. Venturi

The year began with secession accomplished in one State, imminent in others, and civil war impending. Before any ordinance of secession was adopted, the Governor of Alabama, on January 3, seized the arsenal at Mount Vernon, near Mobile, and the Governor of Georgia seized Forts Pulaski and Jackson, near Savannah. On January 9, the steamship "Star of the west,n approaching Fort Sumter with provisions and Federal troops, was fired on. Major Anderson, in command at Sumter, was called on to surrender, but on January 11 he firmly refused. January 15, Forts Jackson and Philip, below New Orleans, were seized, and so also, a few days later, was the arsenal at Augusta. Similar action was taken in Florida. Ordinances of secession were adopted by State conventions, in Mississippi on January 9, in Florida on January 10, in Alabama on January 11, in Georgia on January 19, in Louisiana on January 26, and in Texas on February 1. In Texas alone was the ordinance submitted to the people; the other States followed the precedent Bet when the Constitution was ratified. As these States seceded, their Senators and representatives formally resigned their seats in the Congress. On January 21, the day on which Jefferson Davis resigned his seat in the Senate, a bill admitting Kansas as a free State under the Wyandotte Constitution was called up by Senator Seward and Kansas wag admitted as the 34th State.

Delegates met at Montgomery, Alabama, on February 4, as a Constitutional Convention, and organized a provisional government for the Confederate States of America. The convention chose Jefferson Davis of Mississippi Provisional President and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia Provisional Vice-President. Davis was inaugurated February 18, and at once named the members of his Cabinet. The convention then drew a Constitution, modelled after the United States, but with such changes as made what the extreme State Rights school had held the old instrument to be. Tariffs for protection were declared to be unconstitutional. The Convention then constituted itself a Provisional Congress, and as such passed various laws including a law forbidding the importation of slaves intended to force into the Confederacy Virginia and other border States, which would be deprived of the only market for their surplus slaves. Commissioners went to Washington to arrange all questions relating to property and debts, and to secure recognition, while another commission went to secure recognition from the great Powers of Europe.

Also on February 4, a peace conference, representing 13 free and 7 border States, called at the request of the Virginia Legislature, met at Washington. Its proceedings were soon forgotten. Buchanan waited inactive and helpless, until Lincoln should come and take his place.

The calmly firm tone of Lincoln's speeches characterized his inaugural address. "I declare," he said, "that I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with slavery where it exists ... The Union of these States is perpetual. The power conveyed to me will be used to hold, occupy and possess the property and places belonging to the government, and to collect the duties and imposts." He closed with a noble appeal, "In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow countrymen..., is the momentous issue of civil war. Though passion may have strained, it must not break our bonds of affection."

The next day Lincoln announced his Cabinet. William H. Seward of New York was Secretary of State. These were strong men, but their antecedents did not augur harmony. Seward, to whom, many had looked as to an intellectual leader in the new party movement, failed for some time to understand that Lincoln's nomination was more than a political accident.

Lincoln had first to deal with the demand of the Confederate States for recognition through their Commissioners. He took a decided stand. The Commissioners were told that they could be received only as private citizens. Through justice Campbell of the Supreme Court communication between them and the Secretary of State was maintained for several days; but they soon gave up the idea that the Confederacy could establish its independence by peaceful negotiations.

About the relief of Sumter, Lincoln felt his way cautiously, and the result of his shrewdness was to throw upon the Southerners the onus of beginning hostilities. The President said that he had no immediate purpose other than "the giving of bread to the few brave and hungry men of the garrison.'' On April 11, Governor Pickens of South Carolina, acting under instructions from his President, demanded the fort. major Anderson again declined, and early the next morning the bombardment began. The flag was shot down, Anderson Surrendered, and the garrison marched out with the honors of war. The news came to the North like a bugle call to arms. Riots occurred in New York, Boston and elsewhere.

The spirit of the North began to rise, and Lincoln promptly issued a proclamation calling for 75,000 men for 3 months, and summoned Congress to meet in extraordinary session on the Fourth of July. He declared the object to be "to repossess the forts and places and property of the United States which had been unlawfully seized."

Democrats and Republicans vied in making ready for the conflict. The Confederate Provisional Congress had taken steps to organize an army, and in every home throughout the country men were making up their minds to fight for the Union or for the South. S(>uthern-born officers resigned in large numbers, and tendered their services to their States or to the Confederate Government. To Robert E. Lee, Scott's favorite, was unofficially offered the command of the Union army. He declined, and was put in command of all the Virginia forces. The Governors of the States exerted themselves with the utmost energy. These were afterward styled "War Governors." In the lower South, the enthusiasm of the people and the energy of the officials were not less. Expressive of the soul-stirring upheaval of those times was Bret Harte's famous "Reveille."

On April 17, the Virginia Convention, which recently, had shown a great majority against secession, adopted an ordinance and submitted it to popular vote. But before the vote was taken the State was thoroughly committed to the Confederate movement, and the Confederate Congress at Montgomery adjourned to meet at Richmond, in July. However, the western counties of Virginia were against secession. Arkansas seceded on May 6. The next day Tennessee practically joined the Confederacy, although in that State a strong Unionist minority maintained the forms of State Government throughout the war. North Carolina passed an ordinance on May 20. In Kentucky, there was a strong attempt at secession, and the State was afterward represented in the Confederate Congress, but cannot properly be regarded as one of her States. In Missouri, the situation was similar. in Maryland and Delaware, the attempt at secession clearly failed.

Meanwhile, the Constitution had been ratified by the several States, r @ lor elections had been held. On April 19, the anniversary of Lexington, a Massachusetts regiment, passing through Baltimore, was attacked by a mob, and the blood shed is regarded as the first bloodshed of the War of the Rebellion. 14arper's Ferry Arsenal was seized by the Confederates. Davis invited application for letters of marque and reprisal so that privateers might be fitted out to prey upon the commerce of the United States. President Lincoln proclaimed a blockade of the ports of the seceding States. Early in May, he issued his second call for 65,000 volunteers for three years. Foreign governments were informed that the union would be maintained by the force of arms. The European Powers, by issuing proclamations of neutrality, recognized the Confederates as belligerent. On May 24, the Federal troops advanced to occupy Arlington Heights and Alexandria. In organizing an army, Davis's military training and his experience as Secretary of War gave him a great advantage. Familiar with the personnel, he at called to high places those whose abilities he had learned to appreciate. These men, fitted for command by their education, were confronted by such men as Butler, Banks, Dix, Fremont and Patterson. Scott, at 75, could no longer show alertness and energy. Yet the North was already clamoring for an advance. When Congress assembled, it approved the President's call for 140,000 men and $4,000,000. The earliest engagement was fought on June 10, at Big Bethal, in Virginia, where General Peirce was badly beaten by Magruder with half as many men fighting behind breastworks. Theodore Winthrop, the New England author, fell in this fight.

The first really important move against the Confederacy was made on two lines. Patterson moved up the Shenandoah 'Valley, which was defended by Joseph S. Johnston, and Irwin McDowell advanced to Manassas Junction, where he was confronted by General G.T. Beauregard. it was essential to Scott's plan that Beauregard and Johnston should not effect a junction. General Patterson occupied Bunker Hill on July 14 and General Johnston wag nine miles away. General McDowell, on July 16, began his advance on Manassas Junction. on the following day, Patterson retreated to Charleston, western Virginia. General Johnston eluded him in the Shenandoah Valley, hastened eastward and joined Beauregard. On July 18, McDowell had reached Bull Run, midway between Centerville and Manassas Junction, where important railroads met. On the line of the stream both sides prepared for battle. Bull Run, as Sherman afterward declared, was "one of the best planned battles of the war, and one of the worst fought; both armies were fairly defeated, and whichever stood fast, the other would have to run." McDowell, in a flank attack, crushed the Confederate left and carried all before him, until, mounting the crest of a hill, the Federals, flushed and disordered, encountered the brigade of Thomas J. Jackson. "Look at Jackson's brigade; it stands there like a stone wall," cried General Bee, who was trying to rally his own troops. Jackson, thus christened with his famous nickname, checked the Federal advance. An assault by Johnston on the Union tight and rear simultaneously with Beauregard's rallying charge decided the day. McDowell's soldiers had been fighting for three hours. The Union line broke in a panic; only a disorganized mob recrossed the Potomac.

This battle, by its moral effect, strengthened immensely the confederate cause at home and abroad, but it did much also for the union cause. There was no more talk at Washington about a "ninety day limit" to the war. On July 2S, an act passed Congress further increasing the army. George S. McClellan, who had won victories at Rich Mountain and Garrick's Ford in western Virginia, was called to Washington after the Battle of Bull Run to reorganize the Army of the Potomac.

On July 22, a General Enlistment act went into force, calling into service 500,000 volunteers; a loan of $250,000,000 was authorized, and the war tariff went into effect. On the other side, over-confidence and sluggishness seem to have prevailed.
Congress confiscated all slaves employed by the Confederates for military purposes, as "contraband of war," as General Butler styled it. The average imposts on dutiable articles were raised from 19* to 36t, and oh total importations from 15t to 28k, by changes in the Morrill Bill; and a bill was passed for a direct tax of $20,000,000 on the States. On August 6, Congress adjourned, after having appropriated $207,000,000 for the army and passed 72 acts relating to the war.

The Confederate Congress was in session from July 20 to the last day of August. All citizens of border States who should aid the Union were declared to be alien enemies, and so were all citizens of the Confederate States who were not sustaining the Confederacy. All debts and property belonging to alien enemies were confiscated.

Lincoln found his foreign relations very unsatisfactory. England and France were in the main ill-disposed toward the North. Despite the efforts of Seward, Southern privateering received their assent. In October news came that a combined English, French and Spanish fleet was fitting against Mexico for the purpose of collecting defaulted debts. The Russian Czar, however, declined Napoleon,s invitation to join the league, and Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland and Italy remained friendly to the United States. Seward sent abroad discreet men to set the cause of the Union in a more favorable light. Charles Francis Adams was appointed Minister to England, and served the Union cause there with exceptional ability and firmness.

Mason and Slidell, accredited by the Confederate Government to the Governments of Great Britain and France, were seized on board the English mail steamship "Trent," by Captain Wilkes of the United States Sloop "San Jacinto,' outside of Havana. Great Britain, through Lord Lyons, sent a demand that the captives should be forthwith released. It was refused. Lord Russell drafted a peremptory ultimatum, but Queen Victoria, on the advice of the Prince Consort, then on his deathbed, overruled her Prim Ministerfs decision. Seward, ultimately announced the liberation of the Commissioners. Europe accepted this act as the strongest proof of a cool and calm direction of affairs. Recognition of Confederate independence was postponed. Every foreign Power except Great Britain excluded privateers from its ports. This policy drew England into a quasi-partnership with the South, for which subsequently she was Called to account.

At one time Louis Napoleon expressed himself ready to mediate between the North and the South to the end that the Southern States might peacefully withdraw. But it was made plain to him on the part of the Federal Government
that no mediation was desired.

In the West, events were less decisive than in the East. It was important for the Union cause to control the basin of the Ohio and Mississippi; and for that object two points were of the first importance, St. Louis and Cairo. Lyon, on May 10, compelled the surrender of the Confederate camp near St. Louis. He steamed up to Jefferson City three days later, and the State officers fled. On July 22, the Missouri Convention set up a provisional government whose capital was St. Louis. On July 3, Fremont, a$ major-General, was appointed by Lincoln to the Department of the West, but proved inefficient. He neglected to secure the safety of Lyon, who was 100 miles from his railroad base. Lyon was killed at the battle at Nelson's Creek on August 10. Sterling Price captured Lexington for the Confederacy and compelled Port Mulligan to surrender. Fremont took the field. Cameron and Stanton, who had come out to investigate, found confusion everywhere. Fremont
was displaced by Halleck.

In Kentucky, the new Legislature was for the Union in sentiment. The Federal troops were called upon to aid in expelling Leonidas Polk from Columbus. At Bowling Green, there was a Confederate army under A.S. Johnston, and Zollicoffer held the mountain gaps in the east. General Anderson of Fort Sumter fame was in Federal command. He invited two officers who had served at Bull Run to accompany him, W.T. Sherman and G.H. Thomas. Sherman was sent to St. Louis, and Don Carlos Buell succeeded him- Late in August U.S. Grant was sent to Cairo, and was soon made Brigaldier-General of Volunteers. Grant organized an expedition, and, steaming up the Ohio to its junction with the Tennessee, occupied Paducah. On his return, anxious to "do something," he attacked the Confederates at Belmont, but the enemy was too strong, and with great difficulty he re-embarked and steamed away.

McClellan reached Washington on July 26, and assumed command the next day. On November 1, he succeeded Scott in command of the armies of the United States, and at once began to display his unusual talent for organization. He had ordered a demonstration in October, with the purpose of forcing the evacuation of Leesburg. At Sallis Bluff an engagement occurred in which Colonel Baker, Senator from Oregon, was killed. Things were very serious, but McClellan refused to move and began a procrastinating policy.

In the meantime, important naval expeditions were fitted out. Hatteras and Port Royal on the Southern coast were captured, and the effectiveness of the blockade was constantly increased. New gunboats were rapidly provided. The South had neither ships nor seamen, and her ports were soon closed. In the capture of Port Royal, which made an opening into the heart of the Carolina cotton region, 50 vessels were engaged under Dupont.

The year closed with the Confederates hopeful, England inclined to favor their cause, and the prestige of Big Bethel and Bull Run not destroyed by an Union victory of comparable effect. But the North had at last begun to realize the magnitude of its task, and to bring to bear those enormous resources which the Confederates could not match.

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