What in the United States from "A History of the Nineteenth Century Year by Year" by Edwin Emerson, Jr., edited by C.A. Venturi

On March 1st Grant was made Lieutenant-General and called to Washington. He outlined the general strategy of the approaching campaign. His old command in the West was given to Sherman. Command of the Army of the Potomac was left to Meade. Grant accompanied that army, leaving to Sherman great freedom in the conduct of operations in the West.

As to Lee, Grant resolved at to engage him in front, and "pound his army to pieces." Sheridan was summoned to take charge of the cavalry of the Army of the Potomac. Grant's own army was reduced to three corps. Burnside's force was blended with Meade's.

On April 19, the "Albemarle" came out to drive away the Federal ships, which threatened the Southern army before Richmond. in midstream the Federal gunboats "Miami" and "Southfield" were lashed together so as to catch their opponent between them. Captain Cooke turned at right angles and charged the "Southfield" at full speed amidships. His ram plowed ten feet in. At once the "Southfield" began to sink, and carried with her the whole forward part of the "Albemarle." Across the sinking "Southfield," the "Miami" fired a nine inch shell into the "Albemarle," striking her armor nearly at right angles, and the fragments, flying back, killed the "Miami's" commander.

After this Federal defeat a strong flotilla was dispatched to Pamlico Sound. On May 5, the "Albemarle" came out and roughly handled the "Mattabessete" and "Miami." The Federal ship "Sassacus" rammed her, but failed to sink her. Before she could back out, the "Albemarle" put a shot through her boiler. An attempt to board was beaten off..

It was determined to destroy the ironclad by means of torpedo launches. Lieutenant Cushing intended to board the "Albemarle." As he rounded the shore a watch-dog gave the alarm. The Confederate watch-fires were fed with oil, and in the glare Cushing's boat became a target for sharpshooters. He ran at the "Albemarle," but found that she was surrounded by large fenders. Under a rattling fire, Cushing backed out about a hundred yards and then jumped the logs at full speed. As his projecting pole struck the "Albemarle's" side, he pulled the torpedo string. There was a dull roar and the "Albemarle" heeled over. Cushing jumped overboard and swam down stream. All day long he hid in a swamp. Next night he found a boat and rejoined the squadron. Cushing was promoted and received the thanks of Congress.

The worst injury done to the Northern cause was the destruction of commerce on the sea. This was accomplished by small coasting privateers, such as the "Jeff Davis," "Winslow," "Retribution" and "Echo." They preyed upon passing Union merchantmen. In one case the men on a Northern prize, the schooner "S. J. Waring," captured by the "Jeff Davis," turned on the prize crew, and butchered them while they were asleep. These vessels served to make coastwise trade precarious for American shippers.

More serious were the depredations of privateering steam cruisers. First in turn came the "Sumter," commanded by the famous captain Raphael Semmes, who had won distinction in the Mexican War. After capturing more than a dozen prizes in American waters, the "Sumter" cruised through the Spanish Main and put into Cadiz. Ordered out, the "Sumter" was chased into Gibraltar, where she was blockaded by the Federal cruisers "Tuscorora," "Chippewa" and "Kearsarge." Semmes sold his ship and disbanded the crew. Under an English flag the "Sumter" became a blockade runner, running in and out of Wilmington.

The two most dangerous commerce destroyers, the "Alabama" and "Florida," were built and fitted out in England. When the "Florida," which was designed as a warship, was building, the attention of Earl Russell was called to her. It was pretended that the ship, which was then named "Oreto," had been ordered by the Italian Government. The Italian Consul at Liverpool disclaimed all knowledge of her. The vessel was permitted to put to sea and stood across to the British port of Nassau, in the Bahamas, the headquarters of the Southern blockade runners. There she openly proceeded to take on arms and munitions. On the protest of the Federal authorities a perfunctory inquiry was instituted. The "Florida" was released. Under an English flag she ran past the Northern cruisers blockading Mobile. During the next few days the "Florida" captured a half-a-dozen prizes, among them the American clipper "Jacob Bell,' with a million and a half dollars' worth of Chinese silk. The "Florida" coaled in British ports of the West Indies. One of her prizes, a Baltimore brig, after capture was armed with a howitzer and a number of dummy guns, and went on a privateering Cruise of her own under Lieutenant Read, This officer within a few weeks made more than a score of prizes. At last he slipped into Portland, Maine, and seized the Federal excise cutter "Caleb Cushing." He was pursued and was finally captured. meanwhile, the "Florida" had scuttled the "United States," a mail steamer, just outside of New York. The shippers of New York were in a panic. To avoid capture, the "Florida ran straight across the Atlantic, and thence back to enter the Brazilian port of Bahia. The Federal sloop-of-war "Wachusett" was lying in the harbor. A Brazilian ship was anchored between the two hostile vessels. Under cover of darkness the "Wachusett" passed the Brazilian vessel, rammed the "Florida." Shot and shell were poured into her at close range, and she was driven to surrender. Captain Collins of the "Wachusett" towed the "Florida,' out of the harbor, and was chased beyond neutral waters by Brazilian men-of-war. On Brazil's demand for satisfaction Collins was ordered to take the "Florida" back to Bahia. Collins scuttled the ship and sank her.

A flagrant a breach of the law of nations was England's persistent violation of neutrality. The formidable cruiser "Alabama," under the designation of No. 290, was built in Laird's shipyard at Birkenhead. Minister Adams at London lodged emphatic protests against this procedure. still the "Alabama" was permitted to put out., She was met in the Azores by an English steamer bringing Captain Semmes, and a crew composed largely of Englishmen, among them trained royal navy gunners. Having received her armament, the "Alabama" started on her privateering cruise in the waters of the Azores. Within a fortnight Semmes captured 10 Northern whalers. Standing over to the Newfoundland Banks, he captured a dozen or so of outward-bound corn ships. Off Haiti, Semmes captured the Northern mail steamer "Ariel." Next, Captain Semmes lured the weak Federal cruiser "Hatteras" into open water, and sunk her in a sensational encounter.

After this the "Alabama', ran the South American coast, making a rich haul of 24 prizes, and then crossed over to the Cape of Good Hope, capturing 2 prizes on the way, and steamed thence to the East Indies. After a long cruise, Semmes put into the French port of Cherbourg. Captain Semmes could boast that he had driven the United States merchant flag from the seas.

On the arrival of the "Alabama" at Cherbourg, Minister Bigelow at Paris telegraphed the news to Winslow, whose sloop-of-war lay in European waters, off Flushing. The "Kearsarge" appeared off Cherbourg. On Sunday, June :L9, the "Alabama" came out, attended by the French ironclad "Couronne," to keep the belligerents beyond the three-mile neutral zone. The owner of the English Yacht "Deerhound," with his children, came out to enjoy a good view. Semmes opened the fight with a hundred-pound shot through the "Kearsarge's" rigging, and followed it up with a broadside. The two vessels, fighting at a range of 900 yards, steamed around and around in a small circle. The "Alabama" was already sinking. Under sail, Semmes now tried to make for neutral waters, but the "Kearsarge" stood across his bow and raked her. The "Alabama's" stern settled under water, and Semmes hoisted a white flag. Immediately the English yacht "Deerhound" approached and picking up Semmes with 14 of his officers and 28 men from the water, ran for the English coast with all speed, unmindful of the "Kearsarge's" signals to deliver the prisoners.

Altogether, the Confederates captured 261 vessels, and practically ruined America's maritime commerce. An English shipping authority stated that the clearances of British ships had increased by 14 million tons in 1863, while there had been a decrease in American ships amounting to 47%.

The death of Nathaniel Hawthorne, the American novelist, on May 19 was almost unnoticed. While in no sense a rival of his great contemporaries in modern fiction, Hawthorne held a unique place in that field. James Russell Lowell gave exaggerated expression to this when he said that, "the world might sooner see another Shakespeare than another Hawthorne."

On May 4, Grant crossed the Rapidan at midnight. On May 5-7, occurred in the drawn out Battle of the Wilderness. Grant was repulsed and a succession of flank movements were indecisive. Grant moved by the left flank toward Spottsylvania to interpose between Lee and Richmond. Lee was too quick. From May 8 to 12, fearful indecisive battles were fought. The "bloody angle" was perhaps the stubbornest fight of the war. Grant telegraphed, "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer-" It took longer. may 19, he resumed his flank movement and reached Guiney Station on the 215t. On May 9, Sheridan moved around the left of Lee's army, defeated Confederate cavalry in four engagements, and passed entirely around Lee's army. On May 12, a occurred a fierce cavalry fight, in which Stuart was killed, and Sheridan advanced to the outer defenses of Richmond. Sheridan joined Butler, who, on May 6, had taken Bermuda Hundred, and on the 17th left to rejoin Grant.

Grant began a new flank movement on the 20th. He reached Cold Harbor near the Chickahominy, and added Butler's forces to his own. He made a bloody effort to crush Lee but failed. After that Grant gave up headlong assaults on fortified positions. Lee bad disabled more men than he commanded.

June 4-24, Sheridan aimed to threaten Richmond from the rear, but Hunter failed to meet him. On June 5, Hunter defeated Jones at Piedmont and advanced up the valley. Grant continued by the left flank on June 7, crossed the Chickahominy on the 13th, and then the James. Vain attacks on Petersburg were made from the 15th to the 22d. On June 21 to 22 a large force was sent to destroy the Weldon Road, but was defeated by A. P. Hill.

General Early, oft July 1, crossed the Potomac into Maryland. An action with Lew Wallace checked his advance, allowing troops to reach Washington. On July 11, Early got within sight of the Capital, but recrossed the Potomac on July 14. Near Winchester Early turned and defeated Crook.

The four monitors "Tecumseh," "Manhattan," "Winnebago" and "Chickasaw" joined Farragut's squadron. Farragut lashed his 14 wooden ships together in pairs, and on August 5 ran the narrow passage of Fort Morgan. Farragut climbed up into the shrouds of his flagship, the "Hartford" to get a good view. The long line of ships curled itself up directly under a raking fire. Then it was that Farragut swore his historic oath: "Damn the torpedoes." The "Tecumseh," discerning the Confederate ironclad "Tennessee" through the smoke, dashed at her over the line of torpedoes. There was a muffled roar and she lurched over and went to the bottom. Meanwhile, the flagship shot forward, and clearing the "Brooklyn," took the lead. The torpedoes grated against the bottom without exploding. The other ships followed. Buchanan on the "Tennessee" tried to ram each ship in turn. He missed. He was rammed by the "Monongahela." The bronze beak broke off without penetrating. In a close engagement, the "Winnebago" fired four guns into the "Tennessee," which retired under the guns of Fort Morgan.

Driving the enemy gunboats up the bay, the rest of Farragut's fleet came to anchor above Fort Morgan. Shortly before nine o'clock Buchanan came out, alone, with the "Tennessee" to engage the whole fleet. The first to reach her was the "Monongahela," which rammed amidships without doing any harm. Next the "Lackawanna" rammed her on the port quarter with like ill success. The two hostile flagships now headed for each other and it appeared that both must sink together; but at the last moment Buchanan swerved aside and received only a glancing blow. The "Lackawanna," trying to ram the "Tennessee," struck the "Hartford" and drove in her timbers.

Three Federal monitors pounded the after end of the "Tennessee." Damaged, Buchanan gave orders to steer for Fort Morgan. A shot carried off Buchanan's leg. For 20 minutes longer the "Tennessee" faced her opponents. She could not fire a gun nor do any more harm. Further resistance was useless. Johnston obtained Buchanan's consent to surrender.

Fort Gaines was taken, and on the 23d Fort Morgan yielded to a bombardment. The port of Mobile was henceforth completely closed to Confederate commerce, but the city itself held out all year.

On August 7, Sheridan succeeded Hunter. Grant made, on August 14, a heavy demonstration against Richmond. Later, Grant again threatened Richmond to prevent reinforcements to Early. Sheridan devastated the Shenandoah--the granary of Richmond--of its food and forage. Early followed Sheridan down the valley on October 7, but was defeated at Fisher's Hill. At Cedar Creek, October 19, Early surprised and routed General Wright. Sheridan, 20 miles away, made his famous ride, rallied his men, and crushed the Confederates.

The Confederates built a submerged boat at Mobile and brought her overland to Charleston. She had ballast tank and lateral fins to raise or submerge her, but carried no reserve of air. Five times in succession she sank, Recovered, Carlson and Dickson offered to take her against the Federal squadron. They succeeded in exploding a torpedo under the "Housatonic," which sank immediately. All on board the submarine boat were drowned.

On October 5, Lt. Glassel, with a crew of volunteers, took out the submarine boat "Davis," a spar torpedo projecting from her bow. The "Ironsides" was severely shaken but uninjured. The submarine boat crew overboard at the moment of contact. They took the disabled "Davis" back.

The campaign in the West began in May when Sherman moved south from Chattanooga to meet Johnston. "If the enemy interrupt our communications," said Sherman, "I will be absolved from all obligations to subsist on our own resources." Johnston's retreat was masterly. Stubborn fighting occurred at Dalton, Roscoe, Cassville, Allatoona and Dallas. On May 15, Johnston retired and burned the bridges behind him, and 4 days later crossed the Etowah, took a strong position at Allatoona Pass. On the 27th occurred the terrible contest on the heights of Kenesaw. At daylight, on July 8, Sherman occupied Kenesaw Mountain. Johnston retired to a strong position on the Chattahoochie.

Six days later Johnston's forces were concentrated behind the elaborately prepared defenses at Atlanta. Davis, now removed Johnston. "For my own part," said Grant, "I think Johnston's tactics were right." On the 17th of July, Sherman began an open movement upon the city. Hood was driven into his entrenchments on July 22. The battle lasted all day and covered a front of seven miles. A reckless attack by Hood, on the 21st, was repulsed by Logan. Sherman, on the 27th, began a movement by the right flank. He sent Kilpatrick from the siege, August 18-22, on a raid. Kilpatrick destroyed the Macon railroad and passed around the lines at Atlanta. Slocum entered Atlanta early on September 2. Sherman and Hood entered into a 10 day truce, for the removal of non-combatants from Atlanta.

Hood, now adopted Davis's plan to invade middle Tennessee. Late in October he was joined by Beauregard. Forrest had made a bold circuit of Sherman's army, destroying various railroads. Sherman was eager to make his intended raid. "I can make this march and make Georgia howl," he telegraphed Grant. In the middle of November the famous march commenced.

Thomas was sent to watch Hood and Beauregard. Sherman's force was picked men. Howard and Slocum commanded the wings. On December 10, Sherman's columns faced the defenses of Savannah, and on the 12th they reached the sea.

On General Thomas rested one of the greatest responsibilities of the war. Hood began his march to Nashville on November 21, and after several fights with Schofield, he won the battle of Franklin and (December 3-14) practically invested Nashville. Hoping for reinforcements, he delayed the attack. Grant, alarmed by Thomas's delay, sent Logan to take command if Thomas had not moved by a given date. Late on the 15th, Thomas's attack forced Hood back into a new position. At daybreak Thomas bore against Hood's left. Hood saw his men breaking at all points, and at last "beheld a Confederate army abandoning the field in confusion."

The successes made sure an overwhelming Republican victory in the Presidential campaign. Governor Seymour's defeat in New York was almost as important. "The election," said Lincoln, "has demonstrated that a people's government can sustain a national election in the midst of a great war." McClellan resigned his commission on the day of the election. Among important Congressional measures was that submitting a constitutional amendment prohibiting slavery.

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