Alpha Omega

The origin of the universe is shrouded in obscurity to most of the people of the world. This is especially true for those who have little or no knowledge of cosmogony. However, should one try to imagine for a moment an aerial fireworks bomb exploding against a completely blackened sky, then one would possibly have a fairly accurate picture of the beginning of the universe. Although such an analogy of the creation of the universe is by no means perfect, it should give those without any knowledge of cosmogony a vague idea of how the universe began.

By bringing both cosmogony and physics into one cosmological thought, astronomers have discovered that the galaxies are moving away from each other and that the universe is expanding. It has been suggested that since all observed galaxies are moving away from each other, then there must have been a time in the past when all the matter and energy of the universe was collected into one sphere. Physicists have described it as all compressed into a single dot, smaller than a pinhead.

This “star” exploded and evolved into the universe as one knows it to exist today. Various calculations have figured that such a collection of matter and energy into one sphere of radiation occurred about 16 to 20 billion years ago. This primeval fireball was named Ylem. Ylem is the name that the Greeks gave to the basic substance out of which the ancients believed all the matter of the universe and earth had eventually derived.

Sixteen billion years is a long time and one might have difficulty in understanding just how long ago the beginning occurred. However, if one were to reduce that time span to one year, then it might be better understood. On such a scale each second would equal about 500 years (16 billion years divided by 31,536,000 the number of seconds in one year).

If one pictures the universe as having begun at midnight on January 1, then the solar system would have begun to form in August. Microscopic life would have appeared on earth in the middle of September. In October the ozone layer would have formed from the oxygen in the atmosphere. The first of the dinosaurs and birds would have evolved in the last week of December, and the dinosaurs would have become extinct around noon, December 29^th. A few seconds later the first higher primates would have begun climbing in the trees, and the first of the genus Homo would have evolved on December 31, around 10:30 P.M.

On such a reduced scale, Socrates would have been born about five seconds ago; Jesus Christ would have been crucified a mere four seconds ago; Mohammed would have been born a little less than three seconds ago; Columbus would have discovered the New World about one second ago, and Isaac Newton would have formulated the law of gravity only about one/half of a second ago.

It is therefore easy to perceive that all recorded history of the earth would have been in the last few seconds of the very last day, and that the vast majority of the passage of time, since the universe began to expand from the explosion of the primeval fireball, has been taken up by the evolution of the universe, the solar system, and microscopic life forms. Just how long the universe existed in its compressed state, what came before the explosion, and what caused it to explode in the first place, is all presently unknown.

Never-the-less, there eventually was a big explosion and all the radiation began to expand and cool. Consequently, this explanation of the creation process has also come to be called the Big Bang, and this is the name by which most people know it. Such may easily be likened to an aerial fireworks bomb exploding against a completely blackened sky.

At first nothing existed except plasma radiation, as the fireball was still too hot for anything to form. It was during this time of radiation dominance that neutrinos — massless particles that travel at the speed of light — broke free of the expanding fireball. As the universe continued to expand, the radiation cooled and passed through the entire electromagnetic spectrum — from gamma rays to x-rays, to ultraviolet light, to optical light, to infrared light, and finally to the radio wavelengths. Protons, neutrons, and electrons also began to form from subatomic particles.

After further expansion and cooling of the universe, matter began to dominate. This was mostly in the form of the hydrogen and helium. The Russian born physicist George Gamow (1904 - 1970) calculated that the observed amount of matter present in the universe today nearly matches the amount of matter that was calculated to form from just such an event as the Big Bang.

Gamow and other physicists have also calculated that most of the initial element forming reactions occurred very soon after the explosion of the primordial star. These calculations have further shown that after the initial expansion and cooling, the matter of the universe consisted of nearly 75% hydrogen and nearly 25% helium. Essentially, the elements heavier than these existed only in trace quantities at this time; their amounts were negligible.

This is significant, for not only does the Big Bang explanation predict how subatomic particles combine to form the elements and their appropriate abundances, but the ratios also agree with the ratios found to exist in first generation Population II stars. In the first stage, stars are composed of about 99% hydrogen and helium. As these stars age, the heavier elements up to iron are formed in successive stages. Then in the supernova deaths of these stars the elements heavier than iron are formed.

All these elements are blown into interstellar space by the supernova where they become the raw material of new nebulae. Everything is then recycled into second generation Population I stars, such as the earth’s Sun. Thus, the Big Bang explanation has also given scientists a simple model from which to analyze the evolution of the universe as well as its outward expansion.

In 1965, evidence was discovered that weighs heavily in favor of the Big Bang model. The American physicist Robert Dicke calculated that radiation from this explosion should still be detectable with a sensitive radio antenna. This radiation was subsequently discovered that same year by the American physicists Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson of the Bell Laboratories at Holmdel, New Jersey.

Searching the skies in the microwave region of the radio spectrum, they detected an unexpected faint radiation. At first, it was thought that there was something wrong with their instruments. But after further investigation they discovered that this radiation represented the type of radiation that would exist in outer space at a temperature of about 3 degrees Kelvin (-270° C). This is the temperature to be expected after the explosion and cooling of Ylem. Also, this radiation was found to be uniform in all directions.

This is the same kind of radiation that had been predicted by Professor Dicke on the theoretical grounds that the universe began with an immense explosion, and that it has been expanding and cooling for approximately sixteen billion years, coming ever closer to a complete vacuum and a temperature of absolute zero. This is singularly the most conclusive evidence in favor of the Big Bang model of the creation of the universe. It is precisely this evidence which convinced many astronomers and physicists to believe in this explanation.

However, lately some astrophysicists have been looking into an alternative origin of the universe. They point out that the Big Bang adequately explains the expansion of the universe, the relative abundance of the elements, and the background microwave radiation, but it does not answer all questions pertaining to the origin of the universe.

For example, the Big Bang does not seem to answer what appears to be the clumping together and aggregation of matter in the universe. Which is to say that present observations of the universe have some sections of it with relatively few galaxies and other sections with relatively large numbers of galaxies. Whereas, according to the present understanding of the Big Bang model, there should be a uniform distribution of galaxies throughout the universe.

Some individuals, using the Big Bang model as a foundation, claim that the universe is in a state of oscillation. They claim that the universe is expanding from Ylem to its outermost limits and then contracting back to Ylem, via intergalactic gravity. They believe that the universe keeps repeating itself from all eternity to all eternity, and that the present cycle is just another period of expansion in an unending sequence of alternating collapses and expansions. These individuals suggest that intergalactic gravity is responsible for both arresting the outward dispersion of the galaxies and contracting them back to the primeval fireball.

Opponents of this “Oscillating Universe” or “Pulsating Theory” point out that the universe does not possess enough mass nor uniform distribution of galaxies to arrest the outward dispersion of galaxies by gravitational attraction alone, and that more mass is needed in order to increase the intergalactic gravitational attraction among the galaxies.

But proponents claim that this mass exists as brown dwarfs — stars that are not massive enough to emit visible light, only infrared light. Those who follow after this theory believe that the universe is filled with brown dwarfs that have yet to be discovered, and that such gives the universe enough mass to collapse in on itself. Others believe that the missing mass exists as interstellar and intergalactic gas and dust. Here too, the proponents of this theory believe that the universe is filled with enough gas and dust to give it the mass it needs to reverse the outward dispersion of galaxies and allow it to begin to contract.

There are also some who believe that the missing mass exists in the neutrinos. However, neutrinos, which are thought to be more numerous than photons of light, are very hard to detect as they ordinarily have weak interactions with matter. But it is believed that if neutrinos do have mass, then their existence would be more than enough to cause the universe to collapse in on itself.

Others who believe in the Oscillating Universe point out that another source of the missing mass could be black holes. A black hole is a star with a density so great that it has an escape velocity greater than the speed of light (186,000 mi/sec. or 299,000 km/sec.). A black hole is so massive and has such a strong gravitational attraction that it gives off the appearance of being nonexistent. A black hole is detectable only by the x-rays and gamma rays given off by those objects that have fallen into its event horizon. It ceases to be a star and becomes just a region of black space of infinite density from which nothing can escape — not even light!

Those who believe that the missing mass exists in black holes, believe that black holes are responsible for both arresting the outward expansion of galaxies and contracting them back to ylem.

There are others who follow after the black hole theory of creation and give it a slightly different interpretation. Speculating upon the nature of them, they claim that this universe was nothing more than an immense black hole in another, larger universe. When that black hole exploded — as it is theorized some black holes may eventually do — such was the beginning of this universe. Those who believe this further claim that there may be millions, perhaps billions, of “mini-universes” in existence within the whole full-scale universe.

Another theory proposed to fill the gaps in the Big Bang explanation of the universe is known as the Plasma Universe Theory. Those who believe in this explanation for the origin of the universe claim that there is no ultimate beginning for it. They believe that plasma permeates the whole universe, and that it causes vast sections of the universe to collapse in on itself. When the collapsing section can no longer be forced in on itself by gravitational attraction then it explodes, creating galaxies as it expands.

According to this theory, the visible universe is just one section of the whole universe. Just like those who believe in the black hole theory, those who believe in this theory claim that there may be millions, perhaps billions, of “mini-universes” in existence within the whole full-scale universe.

It is obvious that each of the above theories all have one thing in common. They each have the universe beginning with some sort of immense explosion. Which is to say that while the Big Bang model has only one beginning — one big boom — the other theories each have several beginnings — several big booms. But the problem with all these theories that attempt to explain the ultimate origin of the universe — especially the Big Bang model — is that they all fail to answer the question from whence it originally came.

There is presently no explanation on the origin of the universe that can actually say from where it came. Whether one supports an ultimate origin for it (the Big Bang model), some form of oscillating universe (the missing mass model), or even some kind of steady state universe (the Plasma model), there is still the question of where everything in existence came from and how it all got started in motion in the first place.

The law of the conservation of matter and energy states that matter and energy cannot be created or destroyed. Matter can be transformed into energy and energy can be transformed into matter — as one is able to learn from the now famous formula of Dr. Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955): E = mc². However, neither matter nor energy can be created from nothing!

Another law of natural science that cannot be overlooked is the universal law of gravity. This law states that the gravitational attraction between two objects varies proportionately with the product of their masses and varies inversely with the square of the distance between them. Stated in laymen’s terms, this means that the larger their respective masses the greater the force of attraction between the two objects, and the greater the distance between the two objects the smaller the force of attraction between them.

One is not attempting to undermine the work of Einstein with this reference. For as one knows, gravity is not a force. Rather, gravity is a curved field created by the presence of mass in the space-time continuum. But because the space-time continuum in the solar system is almost flat, Isaac Newton’s theories and equations are still usable today when determining the motions of objects within the solar system. Thus, Einstein’s work does not negate the law of gravity — it just presents a different way of perceiving and understanding this world — and the mathematical formula for the law of gravity can still be used in calculations.

This is also true when considering the distances between galaxies. Because, unlike the other three forces of nature — the electromagnetic force, the strong force, and the weak force — the force of gravity is universally attractive and acts over infinite distances. Looking at the problem from this point of view, if there is enough matter in the universe to affect the space-time continuum, then the universe is “closed” in on itself and the galaxies will then eventually arrive at their original position. But if there is not enough matter, then the universe is “open” and it will continue to expand forever.

There are three explanations regarding the physical shape of the universe and three possible futures. First, there is a “negative curvature universe,” and an analogy to this would be a saddle-shaped universe. This type of universe is curved everywhere, has no boundaries, and is infinite in its extent. This type of curvature is what would exist in an open universe and it never stops expanding.

Another possibility is that the curvature of the universe is “positive,” and an analogy to this would be a sphere. This type of universe is curved everywhere, has no boundaries but is finite in its extent. This type of curvature is what would exist in a closed universe; which implies that the expansion will eventually be halted by intergalactic gravitational forces and will then reverse itself back to its beginning.

The third possibility is that the universe is flat and with no curvature. In this type of universe the outward expansion of galaxies is precisely balanced by the inward gravitational pull of the matter in the universe. This will cause the expansion to eventually come to a stop but it will not reverse in on itself.

However, the universe itself is expanding, and this expansion is a major attribute of the universe. This fact must be taken into consideration when seeking to understand the origins of the universe and its future. There is also Edwin Hubble’s (1889 - 1953) discovery that must be taken into consideration: The speed with which a galaxy moves away from the earth is directly proportional to its distance from the earth.

This says that the rate at which the galaxies are receding away from the earth depends on their distance from the earth. The farther away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away from the earth, and the greater the distance between it and the earth, the greater is its redshift. Also, the greater the distance between two galaxies, the faster they are moving away from each other. In other word, this confirms that the universe is expanding.

Since the masses of the galaxies remains constant (regardless of whether or not it is detectable or remains hidden), one must therefore conclude that whichever explanation on the origin of the universe one believes in, one must necessarily believe that if there is not enough mass to arrest the outward flow of galaxies — and at present there does not appear to be enough — then, as the universe expands outward, the intergalactic gravitational attraction that exists among the galaxies weakens as they move away from each other.

One then learns in the law of motion, also discovered by Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727), that an object at rest or in motion will remain at rest or in motion unless otherwise acted upon. Since the galaxies will be too far away from each other to have any significant influence on each other, they will continue to expand forever and the immense distances among them will continue to increase. Space will become deeper, darker and more inaccessible. All sources of energy will continue to disperse and the universe will become utterly cold, eventually reaching absolute zero: -273° C.

Thus, one is still left with the questions of where the universe came from and how everything got started in motion. It does not matter whether one is studying the first minutes of the creation, the first seconds or even the first milliseconds. The question is: Where did it all come from? What created the universe? This is what mankind has been trying to answer for centuries. Describing what happened after the initial creation — even if it is only a fraction of a second after the original explosion — is not answering the question.

Many say that the answers to such questions are beyond the realm of cosmology and physics and are better left to the philosophers and theologians. However, there is much debate among the scientists on this point. Many others take the opposite view, believing that only science can determine the answers to the origin of the universe. This book hopes to offer some help in solving this issue. Its purpose is to present the facts of the creation and offer some insight to the problem.

Simple a priori logic teaches one that every cause must have an effect. Which is to say that nothing can come into existence of its own. If something exists, then something must have brought it into existence. A priori logic also teaches one that everything in motion must obtain its motion from some source. If something is in motion, then there must be something that gave it its motion. Thus, since everything in existence or in motion is dependent on something else for its existence or its motion, then there must be something that is the first cause and first motion of all that exists.

In the Critique of Pure Reason, Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) said essentially the same thing. Kant said that everything is subject to complete determinability. Reason looks for something that is unconditioned upon something else and dictates that it can be nothing else but some thing or some being that is unconditionally necessary.

Kant identified it as the omnitudo realitatis (the some total of all reality) and said that it must be thought of as a simple, personal, and intelligent being. It is unconditionally necessary; it has no existence superior to itself (ens summum); it is infinitely perfect (ens perfectissimum); and all reality is ultimately subject to it (ens realissimum). In short, it is the primordial Being of beings (ens originarium).

Kant further said that this realization still leaves one without knowledge (proof) as to whether or not such a Supreme Being of such outstanding pre-eminence actually exists. Thus, one is still in the dark, and in order to find a rational answer to the origin of the universe (or even this mini-universe) one must search for the Uncaused cause. One must search for the Eternal Omnipotent Creator, or as St. John the apostle called it, the logos.

However, even if one discovers that such a Being of beings exists, such knowledge still does not give one any idea of what It is; who It is; where It is; or what influence, if any, It has upon one here in this world. But, most importantly, even knowing that It exists still does not reveal why It created the universe, the earth, life and man.

Science cannot answer questions relating to who created the universe and why. Such questions are beyond the realm of the natural sciences. They are better answered by the philosophers and theologians. Science deals with what happened, when it happened, how it happened and where it happened. Science cannot reveal why the universe was created.

But even if the aforementioned questions cannot be answered scientifically, it is not very scientific to leave them unanswered. However, since the first several chapters of this trilogy are scientific in nature and since these questions are best answered in a philosophical and theological context, then it does not seem appropriate to answer them at this time. The questions of who and why will be answered later on. For now, one must “put them on the shelf” for later investigation, so to speak, and continue with the creation of the rest of the universe.

Alpha Omega

Conceptus Astri