Our perceptions of the emperor Domitian come
through the eyes of his enemies. Like Nero, he was the last member of his dynasty. The new
emperor, Nerva, and his successor, Trajan, would only profit by blackening Domitian's
character, not only to legitimize the new regime but also to give credence that a golden
age had begun. Rehabilitation was never granted to Domitian by subsequent emperors because
the line of Nerva continued until the death of Severus Alexander through the assumption of
the title of great-great-great-grandson of the deified Nerva by Septimius Severus (Inscriptiones
latinae selectae,420). Only in the 20th century, mainly through archaeological
discoveries, has a reassessment of Domitian's reign begun.[1] This article will dispel
many long held rumors and discuss Domitian’s character and his achievements during
his reign.
The Flavians
Titus Flavius Domitianus was born in Rome on October 24, 51 CE in the
eleventh year of Claudius’ reign; his father, Vespasian, was 42 and his brother,
Titus, was 11. His mother, Flavia Domitilla, a freedwoman, was certainly dead before 66
since Josephus would have mentioned the fact in his account of the Jewish War had her
death occurred after that year. Her absence from the historical record seems to indicate
that she died while Domitian was young. The effect this had on him is difficult to gauge.
The lack of a mother figure in his early life may account for his later devotion to
Minerva and may have been a factor in Domitian’s need for solitude. Little more is
known of the younger Domitilla, Domitian’s sister. She was dead before 69, but
reached a marriageable age and gave birth to a daughter prior to that year. Domitilla
probably was married to Q. Petillius Cerialis as his second wife. [2]
Suetonius tells us that Domitian’s childhood was spent in poverty (Dom.
1), suggesting this to explain the development of Domitian's suspicious and withdrawn
character. However, stories of Flavian poverty have been greatly exaggerated. Domitian's
great-grandfather, T. Flavius Petro, served in Pompey's army at Pharsalus, surviving by
fleeing the battlefield. Being on the wrong side was only a temporary setback for Petro as
he married a wealthy woman named Tertulla whose family had large land holdings. Petro
acquired the estate at Cosa, where both Vespasian and Titus died, through his wife. He
became wealthy in his own right as a moneylender.
Petro's son, Titus Flavius Sabinus, amassed a considerable fortune as a
tax collector and banker and married Vespasia Polla, who was from an old and renown family
(Vesp. 1). He may have been a client of Antonia the Younger and Germanicus. The
Flavians, with their growing wealth and family connections, became part of the new rising
aristocracy, and Sabinus saw to it that his sons, Sabinus II and Vespasian, had the money
to embark on a senatorial career. [3]
Vespasian may have had contact with Antonia and her circle through his
father but he certainly had it through his mistress, Caenis (Vesp. 3), who was a
powerful and trusted freedwoman of Antonia. It was to Caenis that Antonia dictated her
letter to Tiberius informing him of Sejanus' plot to seize power (Dio 60.14).
Consequently, Vespasian was drawn into Antonia's circle which included the Jewish king
Agrippa I, Tiberius Julius Alexander, Lucius Vitellius (who became Vespasian's patron) and
Aulus Plautius (Hist. 3.66). His connection with the "oriental group" of
Antonia’s circle would prove decisive to Vespasian’s rebellion during the Jewish
war.
Vespasian became an aedile under Caligula, and because he failed to keep
the streets clean the emperor had him covered in mud (Vesp. 5.3; Dio
59.12.3). But Vespasian was politically astute; he knew how to flatter the emperor. When,
in 39, the failed assassination plot of Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus implicated
Caligula's sister, Agrippina, he added to her humiliation by suggesting the bodies of the
dead assassins be left unburied (Vesp. 2). Shortly after, Vespasian topped the
polls for the praetorian elections.
With the ascension of Claudius, the Flavians reached new heights of power
and influence. Longtime clients of Antonia, became close advisors to the new emperor.
Lucius Vitellius acted for the emperor while he was away in Britain in 42 and Plautius was
chosen to lead the British campaign. Inside the palace, Claudius’ freedmen, Pallas
and Narcissus, wielded the power of magistrates. So powerful were these men that Vitellius
included figures of both in his household shrine (Vit. 2). Narcissus used his
influence on Vespasian's behalf to gain his British command (Vesp. 4) and both
Vespasian and his brother, Sabinus, held a consulship during this period. More remarkable
is that Titus was allowed to be educated at court with Britannicus, an honor usually
reserved for foreign princes, and both shared the same teachers and curriculum (Titus
2).
The political scene changed dramatically when Claudius married his niece,
Agrippina, in 49. Antonia's circle became disunited over the selection of the new empress;
Lucius Vitellius and Pallas favored Agrippina while Narcissus and Plautius favored
Claudius’ second wife, Aelia Paetina. Agrippina was one to repay her enemies and
forced two of the Plautii to commit suicide (Nero 35). In 51, Vespasian’s
patron, Vitellius, died and Agrippina, remembering his earlier insult, had Vespasian
dismissed from court. This may have been humiliating but not fatal; Vespasian was free to
spend his time in the Senate and engage in priestly functions. Titus probably left court
during the general clearing out of Britannicus’ supporters that followed. However,
Sabinus was allowed to remain as governor of Moesia. This decline in fortune coincided
with Domitian’s birth but the fall from favor was not severe.
The year Domitian turned eight years old (59 CE) Agrippina was murdered by
Nero and the Flavians were returned to imperial favor. By the early 60's Vespasian served
as proconsul of Africa but returned, having failed to enrich himself, with worse finances
than he had left, prompting him to mortgage his property to his brother and engage in
trade. Despite the aversion to tradesmen that the senatorial class had, Vespasian was
never ejected from the Senate and he possessed enough money to meet the financial standard
of membership. Around this time, however, Titus made a favorable marriage with Arrecine
Tertulla, who was from an equestrian family of significance and wealth (Vesp. 4).
Undoubtedly, the marriage aided family finances but Titus's wife died soon after and he
subsequently married Marcia Furnilla, who had consular senators in her family.
Although family fortunes had been diminished this clearly did not stop
Vespasian from providing his younger son with a good education. Domitian was trained in
rhetoric and literature and wrote poetry. Despite Suetonius's comment (Dom. 20)
that he never became familiar with poetry, Pliny the Elder congratulated Titus on
imitating his brother's verses (NH, Praef. 5). Quintillian, whom Domitian later
selected to be the tutor of Flavius Clemens's children, mentions that he was excellent in
oratory (Inst. Or.4 .proem). Domitian also gave recitals of his works (Dom.
2) and his skill in rhetoric impressed the Senate in 69 (Hist. 4.40). That he was
well read is proved by his ability to quote from Homer (Dom. 12, 13) and Virgil (Dom.
9). He possibly had been educated outside home since Suetonius related that when Domitian
escaped from the Vitellians in 69 he went to stay with the mother of a school friend (Dom.
1.2.)
Vespasian's standing in Nero's court was high enough to allow him to
accompany the emperor on his tour of Greece, although he is reputed to have incurred the
emperor's anger by either falling asleep during a performance or caused disruption by
continually entering and leaving (Vesp. 4; Annals 16.5). The aftermath of
the Pisonian conspiracy of 65 reflects Nero's continued belief in Vespasian's loyalty even
though several of his friends were implicated (Hist 4.7). Playing things safe,
Vespasian severed his friendship with Barea Soranus, a member of the "Stoic
Opposition" and Titus divorced his wife, Marcia Furnilla, Soranus's niece, to cut all
ties that could prove unwise (Titus 4).
Nero demonstrated the extent of his trust in Vespasian when he was
selected to quell the Judean rebellion in 66. He was given extraordinary latitude in
selecting his subordinates, who included Titus, Ulpius Traianus, formerly Titus's
brother-in-law, and Sextus Vettulenus, a client of the Flavians. The selection of Titus
was without precedent as, being under 30, he was too young to have served as praetor
(usually required of a legionary commander). If this was not risk enough for Nero,
Vespasian's brother, Sabinus, was the prefect of Rome.[4]
It is not surprising that pro-Flavian historians would downplay the close
connections the dynasty had with their Julio-Claudian predecessors. Instead of the
prosperity and advancement which the family enjoyed we are asked to believe that Vespasian
went bankrupt and was in disgrace (Vesp. 4), Titus was born in a mean house (Titus
1) and Domitian was reared in poverty (Dom. 1).
(C) David A. Wend 1994, 1999
Footnotes