The Black Death, or Great Pestilence, of the fourteenth-century was one of the greatest natural disasters which mankind ever had to withstand. The disease that caused an estimated world mortality of twenty-four million between the years 1338 and 1351 was plague. (Cartwright, 37) A severe eruption of plague had been recorded at least once in previous records, but due to the inability of medieval man to effectively evaluate such information or have access to modern epidemiological technology, microbial diseases were witnessed as fearful and incomprehensible. There are several accounts of different types of pestilence in recorded history. The story of the ten plagues in biblical lore presents a vivid tale of disease and natural disasters as a judgment for the wickedness of man. Also from the Scriptures comes the story of the great army of Sennacherib, King of the Assyrians, which was destroyed cat 701 B. C. by a pestilence which could have been plague. In his history of the Peloponnesian Wars, Thucydides writes of a disease in Athens in 430 B. C. This may or may not have been an eruption of plague, but its effect on the populace is interesting to note. (109-113)

The first instance we know of which can be definitely pinpointed as an outbreak of plague is the pestilence which took a tremendous toll in the Eastern Roman Empire in the sixth-century. Procopius of Caesarea provides us with an interesting parallel to the words of Thucydides. (Procopius, 119-122)

Some studies have suggested that there is some type of cyclic phenomenon inherent in the periodic spread of plague. It was not until modern research was completed that the cause of the disease became known. The fact that it does appear to have visited mankind at intervals, remained endemic, and disappeared for no apparent reason, still gives rise to the notion that it was a cyclic occurrence. (Cartwright, 52-53) Modern science seems to have given us an answer for the disappearance of plague in England after the 1665 outbreak.

It remains for further research to determine the final cause for the periodic eruption of this type of pandemic.

The Black Death of 1348-1350 was the most notable recorded instance of plague that has ever occurred. This disease is one of great variety and complexity. It was not until 1894 that plague bacilli were isolated and studied. Under specific conditions, this bacterial disease can be the most deadly killer known to man, while mild infections can pass almost unnoticed. The fourteenth-century pandemic, which began in eastern lands, and was reported to Europeans in the most horrific and cataclysmic terms, slowly made its way from the Mediterranean to the Arctic. The inability of medieval technology to cope with the Black Death engendered feelings of dispair, helplessness and resignation. Medical knowledge was inadequate. The Church seemed powerless. Plague endured as a recurring object in the British Isles for three hundred years after the 1348-1350 mortality. The Great Pestilence of 1665, in London, marked the last great incidence of this disease in England. (Cartwright, 53) This study will, however, deal primarily with the great visitations of the fourteenth century.

The fourteenth century pandemic poses serious problems for one who wishes to isolate and assess its true effect on medieval society in England. Because of the lack of uncontested and incontrovertible demographic data, it is difficult to measure the population decline except with circumstantial evidence. However scanty population figures may be, disease was like a sword of Damocles which hung over the lives of all medieval and renaissance peoples, as well as the national and supra-national institutions of the time. It was no respecter of rank or privilege. The reigns of two monarchs--Edward III and Richard II--provide vivid accounts of wars, rebellions, and economic, social and political innovations and transformations. It was the same century that saw the genesis of hostilities in the Hundred Years' War. Art and literature of the time became prepossessed by the recurrent theme of death. The church and state struggled relentlessly to find some means to cope with these drastic upheavals. While the Black Death was unleashing its devastation on human life--in a land which not too many years before had experienced the ravages of a famine which had driven more people to the cities--new industry event of cardinal importance.

Y. Renouard states:

A similar view is expressed by George A. Holmes:

There seems to be no lack of opinion when one seeks an answer concerning the significance of the Black Death. The plague of 1348-1350 erupted in a controversial and pivotal point in history. The part played by disease in the demographic decline and economic adaptations is more clearly distinguishable than its effect on society, religion or politics. Yet even though definite changes in the level of population and the thrust of the economy are clearly in evidence, there exist variances of opinion as to the validity of that data.

Those who take exception to the importance of the plague shift emphasis away from the Black Death. They point out evidence indicative of economic decline, which initiated before 1348, as does Evgenii Rosminskii (38-46), or of moral decay starting before the plague, as Raymond Delatouche. (48-55) Another twist to the arguments against the force of this microbial disease is voiced by J. F. D. Shrewsbury, (45,46) who maintains that, according to etiological evidence, the bubonic outbreak could not have taken a very heavy toll in England.

England at the dawn of the fourteenth century was on an upward trend economically, socially and politically. The population was expanding and agriculture was flourishing. Cities were growing in size as fine churches and expanding universities bore tangible evidence of the beginning of a new era. Edward I, 1272-1307, enhanced the stature of the monarchy, not only by his tremendous ability as a soldier and knight, but by diplomatically fostering parliament in order to pacify the nobility. If Edward I was everything a king should be, his son and heir was not. Edward of Carnarvon as Edward II, 1307-1327, was notorious for his disregard of convention. His failure in war and preoccupation with favorites caused extreme opposition to his rule. The massive famine and crop failures of the years 1315-1317 did not aid in increasing his stature. It seems most incongruous that Edward II's son, the next Edward, was to be one of England's most illustrious sovereigns.

After overcoming a disastrous regency, Edward III, 1327-1377, proved to be energetic, resourceful and discerning. Although at first his determination to claim the French throne was hampered by the high cost of alliances, his later victories were to bring glory and riches to his island kingdom. The sea battle of Sluys, 24 June 1340, gave the English a command of the channel. The battle of Crecy, 26 August 1346, evidenced the superiority of Edward's Borden and infantry over French cavalry in a new phase of the Hundred Years' War. The capture of Calais, 3 August 1347, finally provided a desired northern continental port for transport of troops and maintenance of the wool trade. Who would have thought that this era of meteoric success would end with the eruption of a virulent and deadly plague?

It took the plague many years before it left its Asian homeland to plod its way across Europe (Bowsky, 11). It took hundreds of years before it acquired the name "Black Death." (Bowsky, 10) Medical science of the day was perplexed by the appearance of a dis-ease which did not respond to any known cure or preventive measure. Both the economy and society were severely disrupted by the sudden demographic decline. The mortality, the extent of which is greatly debated, was shocking.

The intent of this study will be to clearly present the pathology of plague in its fourteenth century historical setting. Against this backdrop can be viewed its effects on the social, economic and political landscape of the time. It will then be possible to examine some of the long-term effects of this dread pandemic, and to postulate a knowledge of the Black Death as indispensable for full comprehension of fourteenth century England. It will be demonstrated that this microbial infection, rather than being a mere footnote in history, was a major historical event. An event which altered the pattern of existence in England and had far reaching implications for all of Europe.