Dissertation By Craig Campbell

December 1993 University of Texas

My purpose in this study is to explore the impact that education and training have on the careers of peace officers, so that sound human resource practices may be set using empirical evidence of the consequences of policy alternatives. Although, it is generally agreed that some education and training are needed for the modern peace officer, there is not universal agreement on how much, if any, college should be required, how much basic pre-service training should be required, and how much inservice training should be required. It is my intent to determine the value of these activities to the careers of peace officers.

The field of Human Resource Development encompasses both activities of formal education, that is, college and training and other developmental activities (Campbell, 1987, p. 10). Nadler, who is credited with coining the term in 1969, defined it as "organized learning experiences in a definite time period to increase the possibility of improving job performance and growth" (1984, p. 1.3). In much of this study college education and training will be looked at separately, but their intent is the development of people. In this study when both education and training are being referred to often the term human resource development or HRD will be used.

One way to look at the issue of the value of education and training is through human capital theory (Becker, 1964, 2nd ed., 1975; Woodhall 1987). The idea of human capital refers to the fact that human beings invest in themselves or other people, by means of education, training, or other developmental activities, which raises their future productivity and income increasing their lifetime earnings.

Training is becoming for the workplace what education has been for society at large. Training is seen by some as the panacea for all of the problems of the workplace. This problem is being exacerbated by overly enthusiastic training practitioners that espouse the idea that training is a cure all. The danger of this kind of rhetoric can obviously be seen in the field of corrections in which the public, after having its expectations raised about rehabilitation, demanded results. Corrections officials espoused a similar view of the role of rehabilitation a decade ago to attract money and support for their programs. When they promised too much and could not deliver the reaction was swift and devastating to those programs. Much of the current "educational reform" has been motivated by a similar thermodorean reaction.

Leaders in the field of human resource development call for higher and higher commitments saying that it provides a competitive edge to companies. The American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) has noted that employers are spending $30 billion per year on formal training, or approximately 1 to 2 percent of their payroll. "ASTD believes that this is not sufficient and suggests that employers aim for an ultimate goal of four percent (American Society of Training and Development [ASTD], 1989, p. 1)."

These figures are an underestimate if one considers on-the-job training. Mincer (1989) estimates that the combined costs of formal and informal training is $296 billion. He found that much more informal training time was conducted than formal with a conservative estimate of over 200 hours per year for informal training. Informal training then is over six times the number of hours of formal training. (p. 14)

The desire to increase productivity through training is certainly understandable because of declines in the increases in labor productivity since 1965. Labor productivity increased 3% per annum from 1950 to 1965. Since 1965, it has increased 1.7% per year (Lillard & Tan, 1986, p. 1). The emerging interest in training policies is based, in part, on the belief that a greater investment in training will halt declines in labor productivity through enhancing job knowledge and skills. This interest in training policies is also affected by interest in offsetting declines in the international competitiveness of U.S. industries.

The drumbeat for increased education and training has been as strong in law enforcement as any field. This has been spurred for the most part by the advocates of professionalization in policing (Walker, 1977). Many of the current leaders in law enforcement who can remember the time in the not too distant past when they entered the field with absolutely no training are also strong advocates of training. This has led in some cases to people coming to the position that you are either for training or against training with no middle ground tolerated. The battles over mandatory training for new officers entering the field were hard fought in every state in the union. A new battle is on the horizon for mandatory inservice training.

Because of these differing philosophies about the importance and role of training, there is wide variance in the amount of inservice training that officers receive. Data from 1985 showed that over half of the officers in the State of Texas received no inservice training in a one year period. This has been viewed by some as cause for alarm.

In the field of compensation, there are those that argue that pay for knowledge is a viable way to encourage employee development when that is part of an organization's strategic plan.(Lawler & Ledford, 1985; Ziskin, 1986; Feuer, 1987) In the field of human resource development many advocate the position that training contributes to the performance of employees and the organization. The current situation in many Texas law enforcement agencies is a reflection of these espoused-theories.

Many agencies have for years had a practice of providing financial rewards to encourage officers to obtain additional training and education. These programs were devised to serve several stated purposes:

The rationale of these programs in getting people to attend training has been based upon the assumption that extrinsic rewards are effective motivators for learning. No one has compared the actual effects of these programs which vary somewhat from agency to agency. For instance, one agency may pay an additional $50 per month for an associate's degree and $100 for an bachelor's degree, while another may pay $100 and $200, while another may pay $1 per college hour, and another may pay a like amount for Intermediate and Advanced Certificates issued by the State law enforcement licensing agency. The issuance of those certificates is based upon a matrix which includes both formal education and training hours with years of experience.

Some agencies have adopted standards that serve as goals for their agency. A typical such goal/standard is that every officer will receive a minimum of forty hours of in-service training every year. The National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals has set this as a standard since 1973 (p. 404).

These incentive programs have not been adopted statewide because of the large cost and possibly because there is no empirical data as to their effectiveness in encouraging training or in improving organizational performance. In order to have more training delivered to officers, the State licensing agency for Texas peace officers in 1989, has passed rule 211.100 with language that requires that officers must be provided at least 40 hours of training every two years (Texas Commission on Law Enforcement Officer Standards and Education [TCLEOSE], 1991). This use of a mandatory regulation has obvious negative reinforcement overtones as opposed to the compensation supplements discussed above. It seems rather obvious that additional study of the impact of compensation strategies can be of use to the planning of human resource development programs in law enforcement and in the workplace in general.

In terms of cost alone, this increased level of training will have a significant impact upon Texas Law Enforcement. If one assumes that the approximately 50,000 peace officers all comply with the 20 hour per year training mandate and one only figures the officer's time at $10 per hour, the cost per year is in excess of $10,000,000. This does not include the costs of trainers, facilities, equipment, incentive pay for higher certification achieved, and replacement costs which are usually at time-and-a-half pay. These figures alone strongly suggest that solid empirical data is needed to determine the benefits of such large expenditures.

While training impact is frequently evaluated at a micro level to determine impact, little research has been conducted to determine the consequences of additional training and education to accomplish some abstract goal like professionalization of an occupation. The loose coupling between program components and generally specified aims is what makes analysis of outcomes, especially difficult.

In a review of the literature of transference of training to the job, Baldwin and Ford (1988) found little evidence of learning being put into practice. Estimates are that not more than 10% of the expenditures for training and development actually result in transfer to the job. (Baldwin & Ford, 1988, p. 63) If it is difficult to demonstrate the effective transference of training to the job in tightly controlled and closely coupled studies, (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Brinkerhoff, 1987), then the problems of demonstrating a generalized benefit from education and training are difficult.

Large amounts of resources are being invested in both the education and training of law enforcement personnel and those aspiring to a law enforcement career. The driving forces behind these investments are: (1) the desire for law enforcement to be recognized as a profession, (2) civil liability caused by improper behavior by officers, and (3) a sincere desire to do a better job. Several National Commissions have strongly advocated additional requirements for pre-service education and training and inservice training (Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, 1987; National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, 1973; American Bar Association, 1972; National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, 1968).

To make rational determinations about these issues, policy makers need comprehensive information about the amounts and kinds of education and training possessed by different demographic groups, the determinants of education and training, and their effects on the careers of peace officers.

There is on the horizon an opportunity to make a paradigm shift in policing. It requires a move away from the bureaucratizing and militarizing models of policing to thinking about the function of policing as problem-solving (Goldstein, 1979; Eck & Spelman, 1987; Spelman & Eck, 1987; Kelling, 1988; Kelling & Moore, 1988; Kelling, Wasserman, & Williams, 1988; Goldstein, 1990). Making this paradigm shift requires the acceptance of an expanded vision of policing from simply responding to crime scenes after the crime has been committed to proactively defining and framing problems in a way that allows communities to solve them. This expanded vision requires the acceptance of what Goldstein (1990) refers to as these "realities about policing."

To bring this paradigm shift to fruition will require changes in the recruitment, selection, education, training, and development of personnel, in addition to organizational changes. This new police role will require personnel who can function independently, who are skilled at solving problems, who are creative and imaginative, who can make good judgments in choosing among alternatives, and who have the "intellectual capacity to do more thinking about police work" (Goldstein, 1990, p. 166).

Our society is investing tremendous amounts of resources in the education and training of people for professional careers. The questions that remain to be answered are: Is more better? Is more professional education and more professional training a universal good with no diminishing returns that should be sought ad infinitum? What are the outcomes of these activities at a macro level? Does this professional education and training contribute to the positive development of a profession/occupation that contributes to the community? Do these developmental activities have an effect on the career of the professional?

This study will look at the impacts upon the law enforcement profession that are made by education and training. The specific questions that will be explored are:

From these research questions I draw the specific hypotheses in the next section.

The following hypotheses will be tested during this project.

1. Peace officers who have more hours of college will score higher on professionalism inventories.

2. Peace officers who have more hours of college will be promoted more frequently.

3. Peace officers who have more hours of college will have higher rank.

4. Peace officers who have more hours of college will have more years of experience in a supervisory capacity.

5. Peace officers with a higher grade point average (GPA) will receive more promotions.

6. Peace officers with a higher grade point average will have a higher rank.

7. Peace officers with a higher grade point average will have a higher current salary.

8. Peace officers with a higher grade point average (GPA) will have had a greater gain in their salary.

9. Peace officers with a higher grade point average will have more years of specialized experience.

10. Peace officers who have more hours of college will be more likely to have worked in a specialized career assignment.

11. Peace officers who have more hours of college will make higher salaries

12. Peace officers who have more hours of college will have made greater gains in their salary from the beginning of their career.

13. Peace officers who have more hours of inservice training will have a higher score on professionalism inventories.

14. Peace officers who have more hours of inservice training have received more promotions.

15. Peace officers who have more hours of inservice training will have a higher rank.

16. Peace officers who have more training will have more years of experience in a supervisory capacity.

17. Peace officers who have more hours of inservice training will have more specialized career assignments.

18. Peace officers who have more hours of inservice training make a higher salary.

23. Peace officers who work for a department with a TCLEOSE Certification incentive plan will have more hours of training.

The study looked to see if officers with more education and training are more professional and have different career paths than officers with less training and education. The survey instruments used inventories of professionalism and collected specific data about their career paths (specializations, promotions, salary) and education and training backgrounds. Salary was looked at in terms of human capital theory.

The relationship between training and education was also examined. The study then tried to see if the actual training and education levels varied between individuals in agencies with incentive programs and individuals in agencies without incentive programs. Correlations with motivation items on a questionnaire would reveal the role of intrinsic motivation as compared to extrinsic motivation on the effect of HRD activities systems and the efficacy of expectancy theory.

The methodology used survey data of law enforcement personnel to determine if those with more education and/or training make a larger contribution to the profession in terms of their careers.

The sample was restricted to Texas Peace Officers which makes generalizations to peace officers in other states and federal jurisdictions and other occupations subject to routine cautions. The sample was also restricted to large to moderate size local governmental agencies which suggests cautions in this area also.

This study has significance for state law enforcement policy makers in setting human resource standards and in engaging in human resource planning, administrators of law enforcement agencies in setting policies for their agencies, professional associations in determining appropriate practices to advocate to legislators and state agencies, criminal justice educators and trainers may gain useful information about the influence of their activities, and peace officers trying to decide whether to invest in human resource development activities. Its significance to those outside of criminal justice is probably limited to occupations that are approaching professionalization in a corresponding manner to law enforcement and to the extent that their occupation is similar to law enforcement.

The plan for this study is presented below.

In Chapter Two, I situate education and training in the field of law enforcement, discuss human capital theory, summarize the literature and research on police professionalization, and summarize research linking education and training with job performance, in general, and law enforcement performance, in particular. A discussion of personnel selection validity is included.

In Chapter Three, I provide the rationale for using a survey to gather my data, describe the survey and the sample, and explain how the data will be analyzed. In Chapter Four, I present the data and analyze it. The data presented will contain both descriptive and inferential statistics.

In Chapter Five, I will present explanations, interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations based upon the data analyzed. In the next chapter, I will begin with a review of the literature.

In this chapter, I review the literature concerning professionalization, both in general, and specifically in policing to position police professionalization in the larger notion of professionalism. In addition, the role of human capital theory as a way to understand the utility of human resource development activities is discussed. A review of the police education and training literature is also discussed to situate these activities as the primary tools for professionalization, enhancement of human capital, and career development. Since the present study has broad implications for personnel practices, a discussion of validity issues is included.

There has been a long on-going debate whether policing is a craft or a profession (Wilson, 1968; Price, 1977; Walker, 1977; Sapp, 1978; Crank, 1990). Wilson (1968) contended that policing is more like a craft because of its generalist, task-oriented work as subordinates in a bureaucratic, quasi-military organization, learning their jobs through apprenticeship, and in the absence of professional referents to guide the development of values and ideas about practice. What are the differences between craftsmanship and professionalism?

Stephen Graubard in the preface to Professions in America made the following observations of Alfred North Whitehead's approach to distinguishing crafts from professions.

The first classic work on professionalism was done by Flexner in 1910. He set six criteria to define professions:

Sixty years later Rose (1974) gave a different six criteria:

Through the years, these characteristics have evolved and include:

These notions of professionalism are dualistic, an occupation either is or is not a profession. Houle (1981) makes a distinction between "professionalism" and "professionalization" with the former being a static concept and the latter being a more dynamic concept. The notion of professionalism uses canons while the professionalization approach use the idea of characteristics. Absolute criteria are here called canons and dynamic ones are called characteristics. For example, a canon might be, "A profession must have a clearly formulated code of ethics." A characteristic might be, "A professionalizing occupation should be concerned with the continuing refinement of ethical standards that characterize its work" (p. 27). Characteristics, by their dynamic nature, can take the form of goals for a professionalizing occupation.

From the approach that occupations are professionalizing which is an on-going process which is never fully achieved, we can move away from seeing if occupations meet absolute canons. This approach is called the "process approach" by Cervero (1988). The questions and inquiries about an occupation then move toward, "To what extent does the occupation possess this characteristic and how is it working toward its further refinement?" (Houle, 1981, p. 27)

Wilensky (1964) offers the sequence of steps by which an occupation develops into a recognized profession:

1. full-time activity at the task,

2. establishment of university training,

3. national professional association,

4. redefinition of the core task, so as to give the "dirty work" over to subordinates,

5. conflict between the old timers and the new men who seek to upgrade the job,

6. competition between the new occupation and neighboring ones,

7. political agitation in order to gain legal protection, and

8. development and implementation of a code of ethics.

Most of the focus in law enforcement literature has been on the establishment of college education programs. Most of the emphasis by law enforcement leaders has been on law enforcement training programs.

Houle (1981) considers the professionalizing process as complex along with the lifelong learning to which it gives rise. He lists fourteen characteristics under three categories of characteristics: conceptual characteristic, performance characteristics, and collective identity characteristics associated with the professionalizing process which should be looked at in understanding the goals of pre-service preparation and in the active years of practice.

1. Defining its function.

The most dominant characteristic is a concern with clarifying its defining function or functions. (p. 35).

2. Mastery of theoretical knowledge.

The second characteristic of professionalization is that the practitioners of a vocation should seek mastery of the information and theory that comprise the knowledge base of the profession. (p.40)

3. Capacity to solve problems.

A third characteristic of a Professionalizing vocation is that its practitioners seek to be able to use theoretical bodies of knowledge to deal with a category of specific problems that arise in the vital practical affairs of the vocation. (p. 42)

This fits in with the paradigm shift in policing toward problem-oriented policing mentioned in Chapter One.

4. Use of practical knowledge.

The fourth characteristic of professionalization is that practitioners have available to them and actually use a substantial body of knowledge and technique that have grown out of the vocation's practical application. (p.45)

5. Self-enhancement.

A fifth characteristic of professionalization is that the practitioners of a vocation should, throughout their years of pre-service learning and work, seek new personal growth of knowledge, skill, and sensitiveness by the arduous study of topics not directly related to their job. (p.47)

6. Formal training.

The sixth characteristic of professionalization is that formal procedures are established to transmit the essential body of knowledge and technique of the vocation to all recognized practitioners before they enter service throughout their careers.

7. Credentialing.

The seventh characteristic of professionalization is that formal means are used to test the ability of individual practitioners to perform their duties at an acceptable level. (p. 54).

8. Creation of a subculture.

The eighth characteristic of professionalization is that the vocation nurtures for its members a subculture with distinctive attributes. (p. 57)

9. Legal reinforcement.

The ninth characteristic of professionalization is that legal support or formal administrative ruling protects the special rights and privileges of practitioners. (p. 59)

10. Public acceptance.

The tenth characteristic of professionalization is that the general public is encouraged to become aware of the noble character of the work done by the practitioners of the occupation. (p. 61)

11. Ethical practice.

The eleventh characteristic of professionalization is that a tradition of ethical practice, reinforced by a formal code, is established. (p. 63)

12. Penalties.

The twelfth characteristic of professionalization is that penalties (including denial of the right to practice) are established and enforced for those practitioners who are incompetent or who fail to act in terms of accepted ethical standards. (p. 66)

13. Relations to other vocations.

A thirteenth characteristic of professionalization is that the relationship of the work of the occupation's practitioners and that of the members of allied occupations is clearly established and maintained in practice. (p. 67)

14. Relations to users of service.

The fourteenth and final characteristic is that the formal relationships between practitioners of the vocation and their clients is clearly defined. (p.70)

It is interesting to note that Houle (1981) does not consider law enforcement to be a professionalizing occupation. In the following passage, he lists law enforcement as one of the nonprofessionalizing occupations. Even though there are legal restrictions required for admission.

How does the role of higher education and training relate to professionalism? Education, both formal and informal play a significant role in defining, selecting, developing, screening, and maintaining professionals and in the professionalizing process of occupations. How much education and training is necessary has always been a controversial issue. Some of the original work by Flexner in 1910 was focused on the key issue of whether doctors ought to be high school graduates. (Houle 1983, p. 263)

It would be interesting to speculate how different the evolution of the practice of medicine would have been if the educational standards would have been frozen at the 1910 level. The use of research by practitioners would surely have been severely limited.

Abbott makes the following observations about the role of academic knowledge in the professions. "The academic knowledge system of a profession generally accomplishes three tasks--legitimation, research, and instruction--and in each it shapes the vulnerability of professional jurisdiction to outside interference" (1988, p. 56-57). The academic knowledge of a profession helps legitimate the profession by its presence. Research allows for the discovery of new practices which helps maintain the profession. Most dominant professions retain the ability to instruct themselves.

The role of continuing professional education is crucial to the refinement and maintenance of competence. Continuing professional education should work hand-in-hand with the basic higher education pre-professional education phase. The higher education phase should prepare the individual for continuing professional development. According to Houle (1981, p. 83-82), there is little relationship between success in professional training programs and professional competence at age 35.

At least part of this is caused by new professional information. Studies by Zelikoff in 1969 of the electrical engineering profession found that only 5% of the 1935 curriculum was still valid and 45% of the 1960 curriculum was obsolete (Houle 1981, p.85). If this is the case for other professions, then an essential ingredient of professional education has to be a basic education that emphasizes a continuous exploration and search for answers to questions that professionals face as preparation for the continuing education and development process that must be part of a professional's career. When the basic education is completed, continuing education starts. Life long learning is the key to the professionalizing process.

Winston Churchill has noted that, "The most important thing about education is appetite. Education does not begin with the university and it certainly ought not to end there" (Houle 1981, p. 129). The role of both pre-service and continuing education has to be to create and encourage either "innovators" or "pace setters" to use Houle's terms (1981, p. 152-164). Professions should not be guided by the interests and values of either the "middle majority" or the "laggards."

Not everyone agrees that professionalization is a goal to be sought. Critics of professionalization have seen a shift from the notions of altruism and service to a pursuit of power and prestige.

The term professionalism of police was used in England in the middle of the 19th century. (Emsley, 1983, p. 82) This usage of the term is early since the occupation only started in the 19th century.

Police professionalization literature has focused primarily on three basic dimensions: professional knowledge, professional autonomy, and the service ideal. It has more specifically limited its professionalization efforts to the notions of education and training as the vehicles to bring about professionalism (Walker 1977 p. ix-x).

According to Walker despite the rhetoric of professionalization, the American police have not developed along the lines of the legal, medical, and education professions, but rather have evolved along bureaucratic lines. In many different departments which have the outward appearances of professionalism (using the latest equipment and technology with the most attractive uniforms), have most severely limited the autonomy of the officer in the field. Police administrative efforts at efficiency spawned out efforts to wipe out corruption have had a negative effect on the development of professionalism among the rank-and-file (1977, p. 33). In the attempts by administrators to address the problems of corruption in the nineteenth century, they chose the military model as a method of reform. "The militarization of the American police would be one of the dubious accomplishments of professionalization." (Walker 1977, p. 42)

In responding to the critics of policing since the beginning of this century who were concerned with corruption, excessive force, and abuse of discretion, it was inevitable that the straightening out of an inefficient, corrupt, disorganized police agency would require gaining control over the actions of members of the organization as a first step. As Goldstein (1990) has noted:

The police professionalization movement created increased formalization and centralization of department structure, as police departments became professionalized and not police officers (Bordua and Reiss, 1966; Regoli, Crank, Culbertson, & Poole, 1988). Chiefs increased their control of the department which reduced the autonomy and ability to use discretionary judgment of their subordinates (Regoli, et al, 1988). The professionalization of the department thus has served to obstruct the professionalism of the personnel.

Price (1977) discusses at length the use of the rhetoric of professionalism to discourage change and innovation in law enforcement. The development of true professionalism would result in the loss of control that chiefs now exercise. Price's observation that the rhetoric of professionalism was removed from the reality fits nicely with Argyris and Schon's (1974) ideas of "espoused-theory" versus "theory-in-use." What has become known in policing as professional practice is better characterized as acting like professionals by being "rule-appliers" (White, 1972, p. 76-77).

The notion of professionalization in police circles as practiced in the last 30 years has put what Goldstein (1990) termed a "low ceiling on the meaning of professionalism in the police field" (p. 17).

The idea of policing as a calling did not emerge until the late nineteenth century. The creation and formation of professional associations and journals did not really get underway until the twentieth century. The notion of the service ideal has been slow to develop (Walker 1977). "The idea of professionalization gained hegemony in police circles" around the turn of the twentieth century (Walker 1977, p. xiv).

True professionalism requires a change in the means of control from external organizational controls to internal controls. The professionalization process in policing has been focused on controlling unacceptable behaviors. Articulation of acceptable behaviors were vague and ambiguous. (White, 1972)

Some have argued that good policing is based upon common sense that cannot be trained or learned. This craftsmen view of policing is that skills are only honed through experience. As Stephens (1988) has noted, this view is essentially anti-intellectual. Schon (1983) in looking at the notion of professional thinking in The Reflective Practitioner has tried to move beyond the naive theory of common sense as the explanation of professional practice. In his subsequent work, Educating the Reflective Practitioner (1987), he takes an in-depth look at teaching and learning of professional knowledge and skill.

One of the common ingredients to both the bureaucratic notions of police professionalization and the professional model of developing professionalism is the importance of police training. The next section briefly reviews what has been said on this key factor.

The first occurrence of police training was in Buffalo in 1871, but it did not last. The first sustained formal police training was in Cincinnati in 1886 which established a program of seventy-five hours of classroom instruction over a three-month period (Walker 1977, p. 12). The Cincinnati program also used a six months probationary period after which they were required to pass a test with a score of 70 and a physical exam (Walker 1977, p.42).

It is ironic that the first association to formally call for police training was the National Prison Association in 1888 (Walker 1977, p. 39).

The rise of civil service in the selection of police officers was developed to end the political machine influence on policing. The use of meritocratic standards discriminated against the lower classes and helped to break the patronage power of the political machines in city governments (Walker 1977, p. 45).

Police reformers in the Progressive Era began to call for formal training programs. August Vollmer was the most renowned proponent. Arthur Woods, Police Commissioner in New York City from 1914 to 1918, was another proponent of police training recognizing the enormous discretion that officers exercise. "The policeman is in a very real sense a judge" (Walker 1977, p. 71).

Vollmer though was the acknowledged leader of progressive policing when he introduced the idea of college-level training for police officers. His program in the beginning at the Berkeley, California Police Department where he was chief of police was essentially a police academy with one major difference. Other police academies were taught by veteran police officers while his officers were taught by University of California professors. (Walker 1977, p. 72)

Discussions of police training are frequently focused on either pre-service or inservice training. I will deal with both rather briefly in turn.

The amount of training recommended from various blue ribbon commissions has been a minimum of 400 hours which has now been achieved in many states. In 1967, the President's Commission of Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice recommended that an "absolute minimum of 400 classroom hours" be established for basic police training (The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society p. 112).

In 1973, the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (NACCJSG) recommended that by 1975 400 hours should be the minimum amount of training required by states for all entering police officers (Police p. 392). Standard 16.3 on Preparatory Training in Police goes on to advocate as a minimum a four-month field training program involving extensive coaching, an additional two weeks of training after six months, and an additional two weeks of training after one year of service (pp. 392-393).

Opposition to the 400-hour standard came from cost conscious law enforcement administrators. These administrators were often short of personnel and trying to get by with a low level of funding. They had no evidence that 400 hours of training was any better than 320 hours of training. They had no guarantee that more sitting in a classroom produced more knowledgeable and/or effective personnel. Obviously, people could not be making arrests when they were sitting in training class.

The minimum number of hours in the curriculum for basic training in Texas is 400 hours, although many academies teach more hours than this. Approximately two-thirds of the trainees receive more than the 400-hour minimum basic training. (Campbell, 1989)

The minimum number of hours for beginning a police career pales besides those of other occupations. Bowden commented in 1978 that when a doctor receives 11,000 hours of training, an embalmer 5,000 hours, and a barber 4,000 hours compared to police officer's 200 hours it seem that a police officer would appear to be "only marginally a semi-skilled worker masquerading as a professional" (pp. 32-33).

The NACCJSG (1973) also promulgated a standard on formal continuing inservice training of 40 hours per year.(p. 404) Each agency was also to have one employee to serve as training instructor to provide regular informal training sessions of the one-day variety (p. 404).

The idea of human capital is that the decision to spend scarce resources on education or training is an investment decision. The choice between alternative investments is made when the expected earnings exceed those of alternative investments. Workers possess a stock of human capital like the organization possesses facilities and equipment as physical capital. The education and training stocks are depleted over the working lifetime just as inventories are depleted and equipment is depreciated. Human resource development stocks contribute to production conceptually in the same way as do the components of physical capital.

Investment in human capital benefits economically both the individual and society. The individual through increasing opportunities for employment, advancement, and increased lifetime earnings. The society benefits through increased productivity of the workforce. (Woodhall, 1987a)

Leslie and Brinkman (1988) in their book, The Economic Value of Higher Education, conducted a metaanalysis of the research in this area. They found that there were three predominant ways to estimate the monetary yields of college:

1. Earnings differentials between college graduates and high school graduates which for 1983 was about $6,000 per year, of which 79 percent was attributable to the college experience.

2. Net Present Value of a college education which is the present value of a college education after costs are subtracted and corrections are made to adjust for inflation. In 1979, this ranged from $60,000 to $329,000 for men and from $44,000 to $142,000 for women.

3. Private rate of return which is the annualized lifetime yield on the investment or put more simply it is the same as the annual rate paid on a savings account. Leslie and Brinkman found that college does pay off for individuals who invest in higher education. The internal rate of return on the private investment in an undergraduate degree is of the order of 11.8-13.4 percent. The return on 1 year of graduate study is 8 percent, 7.2 percent for a master's, and 6.6 percent for a doctorate (p. 41). They contend that the rates of return studies have consistently and greatly overstated most higher education costs and thus have greatly understated return rates (p. 67). Alexander (1976) argues persuasively that the economic benefits of education are much greater than what we have been able to determine through rate of return analyses.

Mincer (1974) shows that it is years of experience rather than age that should be used in explaining variations in earnings. If one simply holds age fixed, estimates of the return for education will be biased downward because at a given age those with less education have more experience because they entered the labor market earlier. The best point to measure the effect of schooling on the earning of a cohort of men is about eight years after they leave school. Mincer (1974) finds that at this point about one-third of the difference in earnings can be explained by education. When experience is controlled for the explanatory power goes to over 50 percent. Mincer points out that if the quality of schooling could be controlled for the explanatory power of the human capital model would be greater.

Much of the human capital literature has focused primarily on formal schooling. Mincer (1989) found after analyzing several data sets that the rates of return for training generally exceed those usually observed for schooling investments. (p.20) He found that job training accounted for 66 percent of the 8.5 percent observed growth in wages. (p. 18) "The effect of training on wage growth was greater (9.5%) at younger ages (working age 12 years or less) than at older ages (3.6%). The difference reflects greater intensity of training among young workers" (pp. 6-7).

A study conducted by the Bureau of Business Research at the University of Texas (Devereux, et al, 1987) found that the net social gain to Texas per college graduate was $60,000 more than what could be obtained by investing in non human capital. (p. 11) They also found that a sustained 10 percent increase in funds for higher education would result in a gain of $1 billion for Texas. (p. 11) Some might argue that if this is the case, "Why not invest 50 percent more and have a gain of $5 billion or 100 percent more with a $10 billion gain or 1000 percent more with a $100 billion gain?"

It is not clear that all occupations will show a higher return in terms of salary based on investment in higher education. "For those in the `helping' professions as teaching and the ministry, monetary returns may be limited, nonexistent, or even negative" (Leslie & Brinkman, 1988, p. 182). Policing may fit into this category.

Critics of human capital theory argue that education serves as a screening device because people who participate in education have higher innate ability, come from a higher social class, have different personal characteristics (such as, attitudes toward authority, punctuality, or motivation), or work in more urban areas. Many of the estimates of the return adjust for this using the "ability adjustment" or "alpha coefficient" (Woodhall, 1987a, p. 23) which represents the proportion of extra earnings which is assumed to be due to education. Regression analysis and earnings functions suggest that an appropriate value is between 0.66 and 0.8. (Woodhall, p. 23; Hinchchliffe, 1987, p. 286-287) Psacharopoulos (1987) argues that the alpha coefficient is closer to 1.0 than the 0.60 argued by some critics.

From the employers' point-of-view and from a policy point-of-view, it does not really matter if the higher productivity associated with education obtained by applicants is the result of the educational experience or some screening hypothesis. (Winkler, 1987) The employer has no need to try to separate out the relative weights of causes because the correlation identifies the more successful human resources which is their main objective.

Lillard and Han (1986) report that, "Earnings rise with the level of schooling completed (p. viii)." They also report that the probability of getting training on the job "rises with education to a peak at 16 years or less of schooling (p. 27)." One implication that they report is that receiving training in the workplace is associated with future productivity and income growth (p. 27).

Training causes income to increase 11.9 percent the first year with its effects declining 1.1 percent per year until its effects reach zero by the 11th year after training (Lilliard and Han, 1986, pp., 55-56). The effects of company provided training persist over 13 years (p. 58).

If levels of earnings are indicators of job performance, then level of schooling has been shown to be an important determinant of performance. Lillard and Han in their massive study for the U.S. Department of Labor in 1986 found schooling to be an important determinant of earnings. "The returns to schooling are on the order of about 11 percent (p. 45)."

It can be argued that training performance is a valid indicator of job performance. There has been some research tying training performance to job performance.

Research comparing college education with a state peace officer licensing examination that is based upon training objectives derived from a statewide task analysis supports the notion that education is positively correlated with the knowledge necessary to perform the job and training performance. (Campbell, 1989)

The model of how educational level would affect the performance of law enforcement officers would look like the following diagram.

Lillard and Tan (1986) found that education and training were complementary.

They conclude their study calling for more research about the complementarity between formal schooling and post-school training (p. 70).

Mincer (1962) found a positive relationship between formal education and training received on the job. He explained this finding because employers think education confers greater capacity and motivation for training.

Alexander (1976) theorized that the education and training connection may be because the employer responds to employee's willingness to invest in himself, "since employer investment in the worker appears to increase in about the same proportion as the worker's self investment in schooling" (p. 445).

Carnevale and Goldstein (1983) found that better educated workers receive a disproportionately large share of training. Workers with four or more years of college were 18 percent of the labor force, but 35 percent of the trainees (p. 55).

One of the prime debates of the 1970s in the development of criminal justice personnel has been the issue of whether the modality should be by a "training curricula" emphasizing technical skills or an academic curricula emphasizing a broadened understanding of the profession and society. (Tenney, 1971; Carter, 1978; Jamieson, 1978) Several (Tenney, 1971; Beto & Marsh, 1974; Carter, 1978; Jamieson, 1978) recommended the development of professional curricula by colleges and universities that emphasized the integration of practical and theoretical learning.

Distinctions between general education and vocational training are primarily distinctions made by educators. The crucial common component is that learning, growth, and development occurs in both school settings and training settings. Both approaches reap substantial financial rewards in one's future vocation. (Lillard & Tan, 1986; Woodhall, 1987b)

There has been a long on-going debate on the issue of whether a college education makes a better police officer. This debate reached its height in the late 1960s and early 1970s as various groups set about to improve law enforcement which had fallen to an all time low in the public's eyes. This ties in with larger societal issues about the role and efficacy of formal education. These issues are generally met with a great deal of rhetoric and position taking based upon one's value system.

In 1966 there were 39 baccalaureate programs in law enforcement. In 1968 the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration was established which resulted in 376 baccalaureate programs being in place in 1978 (Sherman, 1978, p. 36).

The National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (NACCJSG) in 1973 issued their report on the Police which attempted to establish as a national goal a college degree for employment in law enforcement by asserting: "Every police agency should, no later than 1982, require as a condition of initial employment the completion of at least four years of education (120 semester units or a baccalaureate degree) at an accredited college or university" (p. 369).

One method recommended by the NACCJSG to encourage the raising of the educational level of police officers was Standard 15.2 which recommended that both financial assistance to attend college and incentive pay for the attainment of specified levels of college be provided. Incentive pay was to be at least 2.5 percent of the employee's current salary for each 30 semester hours of college work. (1973, p. 372) This study will look at the pervasiveness and effectiveness of these programs.

Similar recommendations were made about this time by several bodies: Governors' Mutual Assistance Program for Criminal Justice in 1973, Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations in 1971, Police Foundation in 1972, American Bar Association in 1972, National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders in 1968, and the Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence in 1969. (Hoover, 1974, p. 6-8)

Hoover (1974) makes the following three arguments about raising the educational standards for law enforcement. First, the magnitude of crime has risen to the point that more qualified personnel are necessary to cope with it. Second, the nature of the police function involves conflict resolution skills which require the officer to balance crime fighting with "social work." This role conflict is handled better by someone with a college education because education encourages a broader social perspective. Third, "the use of police discretionary power within the restraining intent of the Bill of Rights is a delicate and comprehensive intellectual task (p. 209)." Hoover states that this third reason is the most important. (pp. 207-209)

In Hoover's 1973 sample taken in four large states California, Michigan, New Jersey, and Texas about 10 percent of those entering law enforcement had a bachelor's degree. Despite these recommendations by 1982, only about 15 percent of the nation's larger police agencies were found to require or even prefer any college for entry (Sapp, 1988). This is an improvement of only 3.4% since the early 1970s (p. 9).

To encourage police officers to achieve a college-level education the NACCJSG (1973) in Police recommended that departments provide "financial assistance to defray the expense of books, materials, tuition, and other reasonable expenses" (p. 372). In addition, they recommended that incentive pay should "amount to at least 2.5 percent of the employee's current salary for each 30 semester units of college work completed" (p. 372). Many departments have adopted a version of this program, although no precise figures of how many have been published. It is also unclear as to whether this motivation has been effective in achieving the stated objective.

Miller and Fry (1976) found that having a college education did not change the perceptions of peace officers about professionalism, work strain, or job satisfaction.

Saunders (1970) argued that there was a police manpower shortage arising because of a lack of quality. He felt that law enforcement careers require the same type of foundation as education, medicine, and the law.

Similar ideas were reflected by the American Bar Association's conclusions in The Urban Police Function:

Beginning in the late 60s there has been an on-going debate about the contribution of education to lowering or raising police cynicism. (See Niederhoffer (1967); Wilt and Bannon (1976); and Regoli (1976); Lester, 1982; Lester, 1987; Regoli, Crank, & Poole, 1987)) Others focused on the impact of education on various attitudes that education might affect (See Finckenauer (1975); Miller and Fry (1976); Weiner (1976); and Wycoff & Susmilch (1979); Lester, 1987))

One of the prevailing notions of the time coming out of the poor handling of civil disorder situations was that police officers had "a bad attitude." Education, it was hoped would fix their "attitude problem." The evidence sought then to establish the efficacy of education to law enforcement was to try to discover if there was an attitude difference based upon educational level. Wycoff and Susmilch (1979) in reviewing this area found that education did not generally have a strong impact upon attitudes.

Baehr (1968) reported in a study of 500 Chicago patrol officers that higher performance ratings were related to higher education levels among long tenured officers. Weirman (1978) found that Michigan State Troopers with at least a bachelor's degree received higher performance ratings than those with less than an associate's degree.

Cohen and Chaiken (1973) in their review of background characteristics of police officers in New York City looked at departmental records for specific performance data. Educational level at the time of appointment was found to be significantly related to promotions and disciplinary actions, but not to awards or other performance measures. (p. 57)

Education after appointment was also looked at by Cohen and Chaiken (1973) which they found to be inversely related to total complaints, trials, substantiated complaints, departmental charges, civilian complaints, times sick, and injury disapprovals. They also found later education to be positively related to promotions. (pp. 61-65)

Cascio (1977) also went beyond attitude type indicators in his survey of 940 Dade County officers. He found that college tended to be "associated with fewer injuries, fewer injuries by assault and battery, fewer disciplinary actions from accidents, fewer preventable accidents (especially for blacks), fewer sick times per year, fewer physical force allegations, and so forth" (p.90).

The issue of type of degree is important because the material learned and the learning experience itself varies with the major. Wycoff and Kelling's (1978) study of the Dallas Police Department found that the types of degree held were: Liberal Arts - 38.2%, Technical - 44.2%, and Police Science - 17.6% (p. 58).

Wycoff and Susmilch (1979) tried to control for the quality of the institution attended by using a modified Carnegie Code ranging from research universities to junior colleges. In a review of administrative data for 882 police officers in Dallas found there was a small but statistically significant positive relationship between level of education and supervisor rating. They also found a negative relationship between education and number of sick days (pp. 29-30).

Sapp (1988) in advocating the need for college degree for peace officers used the following argument.

Sapp (1988) goes on to scold law enforcement for not doing more than trying to recruit college-educated applicants while maintaining a high school or GED entry-level requirement. "The only true measure of law enforcement's commitment to education is the establishment of a specific requirement for college education at the entry level."(p. 9)

A thorough review has recently been concluded by the Police Executive Research Forum (Carter, Sapp, & Stephens, 1989) on the this whole area of police education. Their monograph provides testimony from many quarters of the need for higher educational standards for police officers.

This monograph The State of Police Education: Policy Direction for the 21st Century has summarized many of the hypothesized advantages of college education for police.

Waldron (1973) in his survey of larger police agencies concerning promotional practices for the position of sergeant found that only 6.58 percent required any college as a minimum qualification for promotion (p. 73). Most of those with educational requirements mandated one year or less.

Cohen and Chaiken (1973) found that officers in New York City with some college education at the time they joined the department were promoted faster than officers with no college education. Officers with one year of college at appointment were more likely to be promoted to sergeant, lieutenant, and captain than officers with no college. There was virtually no relationship between appointment or promotion with the Detective Division. (pp. 57-59)

Cohen and Chaiken also looked at later education and found that it was significantly related to advancement. They found that 57.1 percent of the college graduates were promoted to sergeant, lieutenant, or captain compared to 22.2 percent of the officers with some college and 12.0 percent of the high school graduates. (p. 61) They also found that only 9.3 percent of the college graduates were still assigned to patrol while over one-third of the high school graduates and high school equivalency (GED) personnel were assigned to patrol. (p.61-64)

A 1978 study by Madell and Washburn found that the type of degree was related to promotions in the Los Angeles Police Department. A larger percentage of officers with Business degrees and with Police Science degrees were promoted than officers with Liberal Arts degrees (p. 42). Madell and Washburn felt that this was explained by the "success orientation" of individuals with Police Science degrees (pp. 41-42).

Rogers (1974) found in a nationwide survey that 12.3% of the police chiefs had at least a bachelor's degree (pp. 61-62). A 1976 survey by the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) found that 18.9% of the chiefs had at least a baccalaureate degree.

Research by Enter (1986) of the career paths of 117 police chiefs serving municipalities of over 100,000 population found that 73.5% of the chiefs had at least the baccalaureate degree recommended by the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice in 1967 (p. 112). He also found that 33.3% had at least a masters degree, 6.8% a law degree, and 2.6% a doctorate.

Enter (1986) found that those achieving the position of police chief from outside the department were more likely to have a college degree than those being promoted from within. Ninety-six percent of the "Outsider" chiefs had a degree, while only 63.3% of the "Insider" chiefs did (p. 112-113). When looking at graduate degree only 25.3% of the "Insiders" had a graduate degree while 79.9% of the "Outsiders" had a graduate degree (p. 114).

Enter (1986) also looked at the idea that those with a college degree were promoted more rapidly than those who did not. He found that those with a college degree were promoted more rapidly (p. 114-115).

He also found that the chiefs from the larger cities generally had more education (p. 115). Type of government was also relevant with chiefs from municipalities that were "reform" (council-manager/commission) were more likely to have a higher education than mayor-council type governments (p. 115).

Enter also explored the majors and the types of degree that chiefs had. He found that as the level of the degree moved up from associate through graduate degrees that the majors were less and less likely to be in law enforcement or police science (p. 115-119).

Smith and Ward (1986) found that educational level was correlated with ability to handle stress among military police personnel, but concluded that this finding is confounded with rank since education acts as a "selection" criterion for promotions. "Those persons with greater success educationally also exhibited greater abilities to handle stress. Subsequently, these same persons had a greater probability of promotion or movement into highly stressful jobs" (p. 316).

Robnett (1989) found in a survey of 112 Texas cities that 17.8 percent used college education as a criteria in promotions for management and command positions. Of the non-civil service cities the number was higher with 24.1 percent using college as a criteria while civil service cities used it as a criteria in only 5.6 percent of the agencies. (p. 67) In promotions for sergeant and lieutenant the numbers were slightly higher at 19.6 percent. (p. 72)

Outside of police circles training has been associated with career progression. A Department of

Defense study of management training found that those civilians who participate in training programs are more likely to be promoted than those who do not, even though this training is aimed at current job performance (Smith, 1981, p. 167).

Robnett (1989) in his survey of 112 agencies in Texas found that 16.1 percent required supervisory and/or management training prior to promotion. (p. 78) He also found that 47.3 percent of the agencies provided training prior to promotion to supervisory candidates. (p. 80) He also found that 77.7 percent require supervisory and/or management training after promotion and 91.1 percent provide it. (p. 85) One-third of those provided college training after promotion. (p. 90)

The issue of career paths is related to the notion of professionalism in terms of specialization. The use of lateral entry outside of chief's positions is rare. (Waldron, 1973). While it is seen as a characteristic of a profession, Sapp (1978) states is "so rare as to be almost nonexistent" in law enforcement (p. 24).

One the prime obstacles to raising the educational standards for police has been the fear that this will have a disparate impact upon minorities. If an adverse impact upon minorities were shown, then the employer must demonstrate that the selection criteria is valid.

If one were to raise the entry standards for entry into the police profession, it is incumbent on those raising the standards to thoroughly understand validity issues in terms of personnel selection. Legal requirements in terms of court decisions and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).

The determination of the validity of a selection standard is fraught with several problems and questions. Those problems and questions are:

The legal requirement to prove validity arises when there is a showing of adverse impact upon some group protected by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) guidelines or by the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA). Those groups are race, color, religion, sex, and national origin under EEOC and age under ADEA. It is important to note under the law all persons have a race, sex, and national origin. Employment decisions are not to be based on these factors in their decision-making.

There are two key methods that a plaintiff tries uses to establish that an adverse impact exists. The EEOC guidelines and some court rulings have used the "four-fifths rule" which is: "A selection rate for any race, sex, or ethnic group which is less than four-fifths of the rate for the group with the highest rate is generally regarded as evidence of adverse impact (EEOC, 1978)." The second method is one approved by the Supreme Court in Hazelwood which ruled that the employer's proportions for occupational classifications should be within three standard deviations of those proportions found in the relevant labor force. Once adverse impact has been established by the plaintiff the defendant must establish that the selection standard is a bona fide occupational qualification through validation of the standard.

In general, a valid test is one that measures what it is supposed to measure. In the more specific employment sense the American Psychological Association's Division of Industrial-Organizational Psychology (1980) used in their Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Procedures the following definition. "Validity is the degree to which inferences from scores on tests or assessments are justified or supported by evidence. It should be noted that validity refers to the inferences made from the use of a procedure, not to the procedure itself (APA, 1980, p. 2-3)." While some in the field assert that one particular technique of establishing validity is preferred, they assert that the traditional distinctions between criterion, content, and construct validity cannot be logically separated. The APA makes that clear in the following paragraph.

Validation efforts should be based upon objectives and job analysis. The objectives of the validation effort should be stated and used as a guide for determining strategies and evaluating the success of the validation effort. Using a job analysis as the basis for the selection system will enhance the likelihood of finding a significant relationship between the predictors and criteria and is essential to a content oriented strategy or a construct oriented strategy.

Criterion-related validity is a "statistical statement of the existence of a relationship between scores on a predictor and scores on a criterion measure (APA 1980, p. 23)." A criterion by APA definition is "some measure of job performance, such as productivity, accident rate, absenteeism, reject rate, training score, and so forth. It also includes subjective measures such as supervisory ratings (APA 1980, p. 23)."

The following quote from the American Psychological Association provides a clear explanation of content validity.

Construct validity is a demonstrated relationship between underlying traits or `hypothetical constructs' inferred from behavior and a set of test measures related to those constructs. Construct validity is not established with a single study but only with the understanding that comes from a large body of empirical evidence. (APA 1980, p. 23)

The choice of good criterion for job performance is the most difficult issue of validating a selection standard. In some jobs this is relatively easy, such as, sales where you have a clear measure, amount of sales. In other occupations, choosing a criterion that is an accurate measure of job performance is extremely difficult. In many jobs, a supervisory rating with all of its measurement weaknesses is the only choice. In the field of law enforcement, this avenue is aggravated by the fact that performance evaluations are extremely poor indices. The reasons for this were discussed in a 1986 article in which law enforcement was one of the few occupations in which the correlations between a cognitive selection test were substantially different depending on whether one used training performance as criterion or supervisory ratings. (Hirsh, Northrop, and Schmidt 1986, p. 416-419)

According to Arvey (1988) conducting criterion studies for educational standards is very difficult because there is usually not any or enough employees below the educational standard making comparisons impossible because of this lack of variability on the predictor. A review of 83 court cases and EEOC decisions that involved consideration of educational requirements by Meritt-Haston and Wexley (1983) found that education requirements were likely to withstand court scrutiny under the following circumstances:

Schlei and Grossman (1985) found, "Decisions continue to follow the trend of relaxing stringent validation requirements for highly skilled and professional jobs while maintaining such requirements for relatively low skilled positions (p. 27)."

Another issue is how strong must the correlation between the predictor and criterion variables be. An additional concept that is beginning to come into play is the use of utility analysis in assessing the validity of a selection device. This allows some value to be attached to a correlation of .20 or .40. Is either of these strong enough to be valid? Cascio (1987) and others have argued that a selection test with a fairly low correlation but high utility has great utilitarian value. The courts are starting to pay more attention to this concept as professionals develop the research data.

McLaughlin and Bing (1987) discuss the politically sensitive nature of balancing the need for selecting the most competent with the need to attract minorities to law enforcement. Moran (1988) in commenting on the validation problems of written entry tests and recent court decisions stated, "this suggests that now is the time for an attempt to substitute a four-year college degree for the exam" (p. 285).

Kelling, Wycoff, and Pate (1980) have identified the problems of measuring police performance as one of the main obstacles for police personnel research. "The inability to measure quality police performance at an individual level is perhaps one of the most serious and perplexing problems facing police researchers and practitioners" (pp. 48-49).

Education with all of its dedication and focus on research has failed to provide the evidence that is necessary to change entrance requirements. This is primarily because of the difficulty in finding a suitable criterion to use as a measure of performance. Saunders (1970) observes that the value of a college education cannot be empirically demonstrated for any occupation.

To increase the entrance requirements for law enforcement without such evidence has made administrators very nervous because of EEOC requirements and the fact that the police personnel field is a highly litigious arena to begin with. It seems that other occupations have not let this stop them from establishing an educational standard without empirical proof (NACCJSG, 1973, p. 368).

In the general labor pool, it is clear that requiring a college degree has adverse impact upon minorities. (Arvey and Faley 1988, pp. 252-263) Is this true for law enforcement?

A recent study by Carter and Sapp (1990) found that the educational level of minorities in law enforcement was slightly higher than whites. This is supported by research in Texas that blacks entering law enforcement in the last two years have a higher educational level than whites (Campbell, 1992). This is not true of Texas Hispanic law enforcement officers. This is not to discount the fact that minorities in the total labor pool have a lower educational level. The definition of the labor pool for law enforcement is not the total population. In terms of recruiting blacks, one-fourth of young black males have a felony conviction on the record, an automatic disqualifying factor by law. The current educational requirement already has some adverse impact upon minorities because graduation from high school is required. A third factor is that the majority of law enforcement officers in Texas are hired based in part on an entrance examination. Failure to pass these types of examinations automatically excludes individuals. Typically, these tests are highly correlated with educational level. When someone does not pass an entrance examination, they have few choices they can try to improve their test taking skill or give up. The setting of an educational standard on the other hand gives individuals a goal and guidance as to what they specifically need to do to obtain employment.

In terms of whether minority peace officers need to obtain the same educational level to perform at the same level as whites, the answer is probably yes. This is based upon extensive research done around selection tests which has concluded that differential validity of selection tests is a myth.(Schmidt & Hunter, 1986) If a test is valid and predictive of success for a job, it is valid and predictive for all ethnic groups.

Minorities wanting a career in law enforcement may be better served in terms of advancement by having a stronger educational background. Encouraging minorities to obtain a college education will benefit them. A study using 1970 data found that the earnings and occupational status of black females showed sizable gains as educational level increased to include some college. (Christian & Stroup, 1981)

None of this is to detract from the strong need for law enforcement to recruit and attract minorities to law enforcement. The strongest push for law enforcement education has come from the Johnson administration's desire to improve law enforcement to meet better the needs of minorities. Programs such as the recently proposed Police Corps which is similar, in concept, to the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) that the military has successfully used to upgrade their profession and the number of minority officers. Programs like this would pay for the college education of those desiring a law enforcement career which should increase the educational opportunities for minorities.

The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of human resource development activities on peace officers. This chapter will focus on explaining the rationale for the methodology selected, discuss sample criteria and procedures, instruments, data collection procedures, and methods of data analysis.

A number of studies have been done on the topic of the effects of college education upon police officers, but none have looked at the impacts of human resource development activities, including training of peace officers using a large data set. The focus on professionalism, career path, and human capital theory is a unique combination of outcome measures which offers opportunities for analysis using a triangulation of outcomes. Dependent variables are career progression, salary, and level of professionalism.

Studies of educational impact in law enforcement have generally shown some impact, but have not been widely accepted as providing the empirical evidence necessary to make important policy decisions. Studies of training impact in law enforcement have been virtually nonexistent. Quantitative studies are needed to affect public policy decisions.

To help focus the research instrument on the research questions and hypotheses, a pilot study was conducted. The next section has a brief discussion of this effort.

The initial instrument was piloted at three different locations in the spring and summer of 1992. Two classes of students in the Law Enforcement Management Institute program were given the survey instrument. The first was a class called Module Two held in Denton, Texas at Texas Woman's University. The second was a class called Module Three held in Huntsville, Texas. Both of these classes contained peace officers from all regions of the State. In addition, participants in a meeting of the Texas Law Enforcement Academy coordinators, held in conjunction with the International Association of the Directors of State Law Enforcement Training were given the surveys. This group contained law enforcement trainers from all over the State. The return from these three events was 79 completed surveys.

In addition to completing the instrument, participants were asked to make comments on the instrument as to clarity of meaning, typographical errors, or anything else that they perceived to be a problem with the instrument. Also, several of the people completing the questionnaire were informally interviewed to obtain their reactions.

Feedback about the instrument were that it was too long, and that the use of scantron sheets made it difficult to complete the questionnaire. After consultation with University of Texas Faculty and staff at the Center for Survey Research at the University of Texas, it was decided to drop the use of scantron sheets, to reduce the number of items, and to reformat the survey in a booklet format to make it easier to complete. Appendix A.1 contains comments taken from the piloted groups.

A confirmatory factor analysis was run on both the professionalism items developed by Hall (1968), modified by Snizek (1972), and later modified for policing by Regoli and Poole (1980) and the craftsmanship items developed by Crank (1990). The result of this process resulted in the dropping of the craftsmanship items because the constructs could not be confirmed by factor analysis. The professionalism constructs were confirmed for use in the final instrument.

The pilot process made the initial instrument shorter and more user friendly. In the next sections, I will describe the variables included in the final instrument.

One of the big problems that has been identified in the research on the effects of college education upon police performance has been the lack of clear definition of the concept of a college education. (Hoover, 1976; Hudzik, 1978) Another major problem is controlling for all of the various extraneous variables that interfere with the effects of the college experience. The last major problem is finding useful and measurable outcome variables. This section will try to address these three concerns and define the proposed variables.

The variables discussed in this section are those that need to be analyzed to ascertain any interaction effects which may come into play. Some of these variables can be classified as organizational variables, such as, department type and agency size. Crank (1987) found no effect for organizational variables except for organizational size and hiring policy.

Cohen and Chaiken (1973) did a thorough job in discussing and controlling for extraneous variables in their study of the effects of background characteristics upon performance. Some of those background factors that they studied were: race, age, I.Q., civil service exams, family descriptors, father's occupation, employment history, military history, personal history, marital status, children, debts, psychological disorder, pre-service education, later education, incidents involving police and courts, recruit score, unsatisfactory probation, and marksmanship.

Regoli and Poole (1980) found differential responses to the professionalism scale used here based upon whether a department was classified as rural or urban.

Age is the subject's present age. Levels of promotion and salary could be related to this data.

Gender is the subject's gender. Levels of promotion and salary could be related to this data. Research by Adler (1990) indicates that women have not achieved as high a rank in American policing as men.

Ethnic background is the subject's ethnic background using the following five categories: African-American, American-Indian, Hispanic, Asian-American, and Anglo. Levels of promotion and salary could be related to this data.

Hours of basic training is the number of hours of basic training received. It has been found by Campbell (1989a) to impact on the performance on a state licensing test based upon a content valid, job related basic training course.

Years of experience is the reported years of experience in law enforcement. Levels of promotion and salary could be related to this data.

Length of service is divided into five career stages: (1) less than five years, (2) five to nine years, (3) ten to fourteen years, and (4) 15 to 19 years, and (5) 20 years or more.

Type of department is divided into two categories: (1) municipal and (2) sheriffs. Different types of departments have different types of personnel practices regarding salary, promotions, selection, etc. (Robnett, 1989)

Civil service status of department is a yes or no category. Since a civil service department comes under various, statutory regulations about personnel practices, there will be some differences in personnel practices regarding salary, promotions, selection, etc. (Robnett, 1989)

Size of department is the three largest of the six categories used by the Commission on Law Enforcement Accreditation (CALEA, 1990): (1) 50 to 199, (2) 200 to 999, and (3) 1000+. Crank (1987) found that size of the department affected the professionalism scores of Illinois police chiefs.

Training certification levels gathers information about the prevalence of the different TCLEOSE certifications among the sample.

Previous experience in the criminal justice system is also gathered. In addition, off-duty employment is examined as part of the conditions that affects participation in training and educational endeavors.

The number of agencies worked for is also included as a factor of career development. Law enforcement does not encourage mobility between agencies.

Percentage of coursework taken before entering law enforcement is a measure of the utility of college earned pre-service.

Emphasis of curriculum is a measure of the type of coursework taken using the typology developed by Hoover.

1. Criminal Justice and/or Law Enforcement.

2. Liberal Arts (English, Humanities, Arts, History, Economics, Languages).

3. Social science (Sociology, Psychology, Political Science, Anthropology).

4. Social Professions (Social Work, Education, Business Administration).

5. Natural Science (Chemistry, Math, Statistics, Physics, Agriculture). (1976, p.16-17)

College major is another measure of the type and the emphasis of coursework taken.

Departmental practices was determined by a departmental survey that a departmental designee completed.

This section will discuss the proposed independent variables.

Number of hours of college is a measure of the duration of college.

Grade point average is a measure of the intensity of the learning.

Number of hours of training is the number of hours of in-service training beyond the basic training academy.

Motivation to attend training is an estimated percentage of the training attended that was sought out by the officer as opposed to departmentally prescribed. In addition, specific items are included asking for the impact of various departmental practices upon attending training and college.

Whether department has a college incentive pay program is examined as a motivator.

Whether the department has a certification incentive pay program is looked at as a motivator. TCLEOSE intermediate and advanced certificates are awarded based upon number of college hours, number of training hours, and number of years of experience.

Choosing appropriate, meaningful, and measurable dependent variables that indicate superior police performance is the most difficult part of this research. Others have noted this same difficulty.

Kelling, Wycoff, and Pate (1980) have identified the problems of measuring police performance as one of the main obstacles for police personnel research. "The inability to measure quality police performance at an individual level is perhaps one of the most serious and perplexing problems facing police researchers and practitioners" (pp. 48-49).

The use of supervisory evaluations has proved to be problematic for law enforcement criterion studies. (Hirsch, Northrop, & Schmidt, 1986) Supervisors do not have the opportunity to consistently monitor subordinates in police work and there are difficulties involved in trying to get a good criterion measure of job performance for police work. (pp. 416-419)

Since professionalism is one of the espoused goals of education and training programs for law enforcement, a measure of professionalism using the instruments developed by Hall (1968) and modified by Snizek (1972), Regoli and Poole (1980), and Crank (1990) is an appropriate way to test hypotheses about the impacts of education and training.

The utility of education and training in furthering the career of those receiving it can be accurately measured by gathering data about their career progression and salary. Human capital theory states that investments in education and training pay returns on this investment in the form of higher wages. (Woodhall, 1987; Leslie & Brinkman, 1988; Mincer, 1989)

Number of promotions is one measure of career progression.

Rank is a measure of career progression.

Years of supervisory experience is a measure of career progression.

Number of special assignments means special internal assignments as indicating additional special knowledge, skills, or abilities. Cohen and Chaiken (1973) found that those with a college degree were much less likely to be assigned to patrol. Examples of special assignments are: criminal investigations, criminal and civil warrants, training, field training officer, research, planning, crime analysis, juvenile, crime prevention, administration, emergency communications, detention, and other. To count as a special assignment, it should involve an assignment of continuous duty of at least one year.

Current base salary measures the economic payoff for investments in human resource development.

Salary gain is the difference between their entry salary and present salary.

Professionalism scores as measured by the professionalism instrument developed by Hall (1968) and modified by Snizek (1972) and Crank (1990). This concept uses five constructs (1) service, (2) regulation, (3) calling, (4) referent, and (5) autonomy.

Alienation is also measured in the instrument in Appendix A.1. This construct has been used repeatedly in the literature (Regoli, 1976; Regoli, Crank, Culbertson, & Poole, 1987; Regoli, Crank, Culbertson, & Poole, 1988) and relates closely with job satisfaction.

The proposed instrument is contained in Appendix A.2. The items on the Departmental Information survey completed by the departmental designee is in Appendix A.3. The items on professionalism are from the previous research by Hall (1968), Snizek (1972), Regoli and Poole (1980), Regoli, Crank, Culbertson, and Poole (1987 & 1988), Crank (1990), and Crank, Payn, & Jackson, (1991).

In the initial pilot study, items on a Craftsmanship Inventory by Crank (1990 and 1991) were included, as a new alternative version of the professionalism inventory. However, a confirmatory factor analysis during the pilot failed to substantiate the proposed constructs, and it was dropped.

The items on background data were created by me and modified after the pilot study to gather data for the testing of the hypotheses.

This is a crucial step that must be done with care to control for possible intervening variables and build a solid base for generalizations of the results. The sampling technique used was a random sample from the larger local law enforcement agencies in the State. The sample was randomly selected from the Texas Commission on Law Enforcement Officer Standards and Education (TCLEOSE) files of licensed peace officers. TCLEOSE is the licensing agency of peace officers and county jail officers in the State of Texas.

A letter was mailed to 36 Chiefs and Sheriffs of the largest local agencies in the State asking for their participation and the appointment of a designee who could assist in the distribution and collection of the survey instruments. The letter was from the Executive Director of TCLEOSE and signed by me. Included with the letter was a one page synopsis of the study and a copy of the survey instrument. See Appendix A.4 for copies of the letter and synopsis, and Appendix A.5 for lists of the chief administrative officers. For a list of the designees, see Appendix A.6 for those who agreed to participate.

The size of the sample was determined by using a formula described by Nowack (1990). The formula is for determining sample size to generalize to an entire population at a 95 percent level of confidence. The

formula is:

The number of returned surveys needed for generalization purposes is 381, if the total population was to be sampled. Since the cost of a random survey was high and the return rate was predicted to be fairly low, another approach was taken. The approach taken was to draw randomly the sample from the largest agencies in the State which will represent just short of the majority of the peace officers in the State with 21,065 of the 47,749 peace officers in Texas. If you use Nowack's (1990) formula with the 21,065 as the population base, the required number does not vary much.

So, we need 377 returned surveys to generalize to the population with 95 percent confidence level. Not knowing precisely what the return rate might be, we chose to estimate a return rate of between 55 and 60 percent in determining the number of surveys to send out.

The sample was randomly drawn from each department by randomly drawing a starting point from the TCLEOSE roster and then choosing every 32nd peace officer. This resulted in a proportional representation of officers from each department consistent with the number of peace officers within the department. These 36 departments had 21,065 peace officers and the sample was 658. The total number of peace officers in the State is 47,749.

After the designee was appointed, a letter was sent to him or her along with a list of the randomly selected peace officers in their department who were to receive the instrument and the number of copies of the instrument needed for distribution. The designees were instructed to contact the researcher if someone was unavailable for replacement. Less than a half-dozen did so because one of the selectees had left the department or in one case was on injury leave. They were replaced by taking the person immediately preceding them on the TCLEOSE roster.

The data was then entered into a personal computer database program to prepare for analyses when sufficient returns were received.

In addition to the general descriptive methods, the following methods were used for hypothesis testing: analysis of variance, chi square, Pearson's R, and factor analysis. For determining if a result is statistically significant, the .05 level was used as the standard for determining if the result could have been caused by chance. The SPSS Data Analysis System is the software chosen for data analysis.

In the next Chapter, I will present the data received from this process and will analyze it.

The major purpose of this study is to understand the impact of human resource development activities on the careers of peace officers in Texas. The findings of this study will provide information and guidance to administrators and planners of human resources in Texas State government and local governments.

These purposes were accomplished by (1) gathering descriptive data about the careers of peace officers in the larger local governmental agencies and (2) by postulating the following research questions and hypotheses for testing using the gathered data.

This study will look at the impacts upon the profession that are made by education and training. The specific questions that will be explored are:

1. Do officers who have more hours of college have a different professional orientation or a different career path experience?

2. Do officers who have more hours of in-service training differ in terms of professional orientation or differ in career path experience?

3. What is the relationship between those who receive college education and training?

From these research questions I draw the specific hypotheses in the next section.

The following hypotheses will be tested during this project.

The data was gathered from the thirty-six (36) largest local governmental law enforcement agencies in the State.

The findings of this study will be presented in two major sections. The first section will contain the descriptive information obtained, and the second section will answer the hypothesized questions.

The peace officers to be surveyed were identified randomly from the lists of peace officers that TCLEOSE maintains of all licensed peace officers in the State of Texas. The thirty-six agencies selected are the largest law enforcement agencies operated by local governments.

Thirty-six agency administrators were contacted by cover letter, with a brief explanation of the study, and a sample survey. They were asked to appoint a contact person for distributing the surveys to a sample of agency peace officers. Those contact persons were sent a letter of explanation, along with copies of the surveys, and a list of officers to be surveyed.

The number of people surveyed at each agency was based on the proportion of peace officers the agency represented in the overall sample. By taking every 32nd peace officer in the department, the sample varies from four in Carrollton to 140 in Houston. The total population sampled includes 21,065 peace officers with 658 surveys distributed and 460 returned which included four blank ones or a 70.4 per cent survey return rate. This leaves 456 completed for a final return rate of 69.3 percent. The sample breakdown is shown in Table 4.1 below.

The return rate for larger agencies was lower than for smaller agencies. This can be partially explained by the logistics of distributing and collecting surveys from a department with over 4500 officers and scattered over a wide area in a city with many substations. It is also probable that in the larger agencies the anonymity of an officer was more prevalently seen which allowed greater freedom in not filling out the survey because of less fear of discovery. This is illustrated by the offer of one of the chief's designees in one of the smaller departments. He was concerned that he was missing one of the surveys, so he offered to read the surveys and ascertain who had not returned his or her survey, and to get them to return it. I told him that it was not necessary to protect our pledge of voluntariness and anonymity.

A comparison was made of the sample to TCLEOSE data which is where the sample was drawn from and represents every licensed peace officer in the State of Texas.

Table 4.1 Sample Breakdown

Number of

Peace Sample Returned Percent

Abilene PD 162 5 5 100

Amarillo PD 261 8 8 100

Arlington PD 370 12 9 75

Austin PD 859 27 23 85

Beaumont PD 243 8 8 100

Bexar County S.O. 938 29 18 62

Brownsville PD 160 5 5 100

Carrollton PD 129 4 3 75

Corpus Christi PD 383 12 12 100

Dallas County S.O. 486 15 11 73

Dallas PD 2880 90 48 53

El Paso County S.O. 198 6 5 83

El Paso PD 828 26 16 62

Fort Worth PD 1046 33 21 64

Galveston PD 166 5 5 100

Galveston Co. S.O. 287 9 9 100

Garland PD 215 7 6 86

Grand Prairie PD 152 5 5 100

Harris County S.O. 1796 56 34 61

Houston PD 4565 142 73 51

Irving PD 261 9 9 100

Longview PD 127 4 4 100

Lubbock PD 299 9 8 89

McAllen PD 163 5 5 100

Midland PD 162 5 5 100

Montgomery Co. S.O. 301 9 9 100

Odessa PD 164 5 5 100

Pasadena P.D. 205 6 6 100

Plano PD 186 6 6 100

San Angelo PD 160 5 5 100

San Antonio PD 1543 48 35 73

Tarrant County S.O. 581 18 13 72

Travis County S.O. 286 9 6 67

Tyler PD 161 5 5 100

Waco PD 192 6 6 100

Wichita Falls PD 150 5 5 100

TOTALS 21,065 658 456 69.3%

The following Tables indicate that the sample was comparable to the population. It was over represented by females, see Table 4.2 and Figure 4.1 which probably indicates that they are more likely to return their surveys and the urban nature of the sample. It was slightly under represented by white males, see Table 4.3 and Figure 4.2. This may have been caused by the urban nature of the sample.

It was also under represented in groups of officers under the age of 25 and of officers over 50. This is explained by the fact that most of these departments are civil service which have a maximum beginning age of 35 with strong encouragement and incentives to retire after twenty years or at 55 (See Table 4.4 and Figure 4.3). Ninety-one percent of the sample is under civil service.

The sample officers were more likely to have worked with only one department (See Table 4.5 and Figure 4.4). They also have more years of experience than the total listing by TCLEOSE of officer population in Texas (See Table 4.6 and Figure 4.5). This type of stability is another characteristic of civil service departments.

Taken altogether the sample represents the urban local law enforcement agencies in Texas. The results of

Table 4.2

Gender Comparison with Sample and TCLEOSE Data

Percent Percent

Percent TCLEOSE P.O.

Sample Population* Population

Male 82.6 87.8 91.5

Female 17.4 12.2 8.5

*These figures are based on the total TCLEOSE licensing population of 62,290 on 8-17-92, including jail and reserve licensees.

**These figures are based on the total TCLEOSE licensed peace officers population of 47,749 on 8-17-92, excluding all other licensees.

Figure 4.1 Insert

Table 4.3

Ethnic Comparison with Sample and TCLEOSE Data

Percent

Percent TCLEOSE

African-American 7.8 7.9

American-Indian 2.4 0.2

Asian-American 0.7 0.2

Hispanic-American 17.8 15.3

Anglo-American 71.3 76.8

*These figures are based on the total TCLEOSE licensing population of 62,290 on 8-17-92, including jail and reserve licensees.

.

Insert Figure 4.2

Table 4.4

Age Comparison with Sample and TCLEOSE Data

Percent Percent

Less than 25 2.9 6.1

25 to 29 13.6 15.6

30 to 34 21.9 18.1

35 to 39 20.8 16.6

40 to 44 18.4 15.4

45 to 49 13.2 11.5

50+ 9.2 16.7

*These figures are based on the total TCLEOSE licensing population of 62,290 on 8-17-92, including jail and reserve licensees.

Insert Figure 4.3

Table 4.5 Number of Previous Jobs

Number of Percent Percent

One 82.1 60.9

2 to 10 17.9 30.1

*These figures are based on the total TCLEOSE licensing population of 62,290 on 8-17-92, including jail and reserve licensees.

Figure 4.4 Insert here

Table 4.6

Employment Years Comparison Between Sample and TCLEOSE Data

Years of Percent Percent

Experience Group Sample TCLEOSE Population*

Less than 5 years 17.8 31.2

5 to 9 years 21.9 26.2

10 to 14 years 23.9 20.4

15 to 19 years 17.3 10.6

20+ 19.1 11.5

*These figures are based on the total TCLEOSE licensing population of 62,290 on 8-17-92, including jail and reserve licensees.

Figure 4.5 Inserted Here

this data analysis should be generalizable to agencies of this size without problem.

It should be noted that most agencies in Texas are smaller than those represented in the sample. There are some State agencies, such as, the Texas Department of Public Safety, Alcohol Beverage Commission, Parks and Wildlife Commission which contain large numbers of peace officers who were not included in this sample. They were not included because the logistics of sampling are more difficult with agents scattered all over the state, and their mission is different from the local agencies reviewed here.

The smaller agencies may differ from the larger ones in the sample. The larger agencies in the sample are more likely to be civil service type agencies with more formalized human resources practices.

Items two through 26 make up the professionalism scale talked about in Chapter Three. The specific constructs that make up the scale are as follows:

1. service which measures belief in the importance of the policing occupation to society;

2. regulation which measures the ability to judge the competence of officers;

3. calling which measures the belief in the respondent's calling to the field and the dedication of officers;

4. referent which taps the use of professional organizations as major referents.

5. autonomy which measures the belief about the person's ability to make independent decisions about their work performance.

6. alienation which measures one's satisfaction with their job.

The individual results are reported in Appendix B.1. Table 4.7 shows the mean score and standard deviation for the six constructs.

Table 4.7

Descriptive Statistics For Professionalism Composite Indices

Construct Mean SD

Service 3.736 .591

Regulation 3.804 .619

Calling 3.286 .616

Referent 2.8232 .750

Autonomy 3.752 .596

Alienation 3.997 .774

Items 27 through 35 were concerned with the officers' motivations in seeking training. The chart in Appendix B.2 shows that in terms of the mean response that seeking job skills was most important, with enjoyment of training being second, and TCLEOSE intermediate and advanced certificates being third. In looking at the mode of the responses others showing high importance are advancement, job skills, TCLEOSE certification, and the TCLEOSE 40 hour requirement for 40 hours of inservice every 24 months. If the median is used the three top motivators are job skills, enjoyment, and TCLEOSE certification.

Item 36 asked for the number of years since basic training. The range was from zero years to thirty-five with a mean of 11.97, a mode of 10, a median of 11, and a standard deviation of 7.6.

Item 37 asked for the number of hours in basic training. This item was not responded to by 92 of the officers or 20.2 per cent of the sample. The most logical explanation for this is the lack of recall of this information. The mean for this item from the 364 respondents who recalled their basic training hours was 571, with a mode of 400 (the State mandated minimum from 1982 through the present), a median of 531, and a standard deviation of 267.3.

Item 38 recorded the type of basic training academy. The type of basic academy was broken into six categories state, regional, college, local (county or municipal), other, and did not attend basic. This data is reported in Appendix B.3.

The amount of inservice is recorded in item 39. Eight categories of data were provided. This item, as did item 37 concerning basic training, had a high number of missing data responses with 11.6 percent not choosing one of the eight options. The reasons for this are probably the same as item 37. For purposes of analysis, this item was recoded into a new variable called TRAIN. Table 4.8 shows these groupings.

Item 40 asked for the percentage of inservice training that they sought out as opposed to their department assigning them to attend. The responses ranged from zero to 100 percent, with a mean of 37, a mode of zero, a median of 30, and a standard deviation of 29.7. This item also had a high number of missing cases with 60 or 13.2 percent being left blank. The second highest response after zero was 50 percent.

Items 41 through 47 asked whether they had one of seven TCLEOSE certifications or licenses that are available to peace officers beyond the peace officer license. The percentage of respondents saying that they had a particular license or certification is shown in Table 4.9 below. The percentage reported is the valid percentage which excludes missing data for an item. The missing data on these items ranged from 2.6% to 4.2% depending upon the item.

Item 48 asked for the years since college. The data was asked for in six categories. Table 4.10 contains this information.

Item 49 requested the total hours of college. The mean number of hours was 73.9 and the median 64, and a standard deviation of 58.9. Thirty percent report a college degree.

Item 50 asked for the percentage of college hours received prior to employment as a peace officer. Forty-two percent of the officers received 90% or more of their college hours prior to employment. On the other extreme over 13 percent had received no college hours prior to employment. The data is provided in the Appendix B.4.

Table 4.8 Amount of Inservice Training

Zero 8 2.0

1 to 100 56 13.9

101 to 200 43 10.7

201 to 300 54 13.4

301 to 400 50 12.4

401 to 500 49 12.2

501 to 600 29 7.2

601 to 700 18 4.5

701 plus 96 23.8

Recoded Inservice Training

Zero to 200 107 26.6

201 to 400 104 25.8

401 to 600 78 19.4

601 plus 114 28.3

N=403

Missing 53 11.6%

Table 4.9

Certification Levels Of Sample

Intermediate Certification 80.8%

Advanced Certification 57.7%

Instructor License 22.3%

Crime Prevention Certification 10.2%

Investigative Hypnosis License 0.9%

Jail License 20.5%

Management Institute Certification 2.0%

Table 4.10

Years Since College

Did not attend 59 13.0

Currently attending 31 6.8

One year ago 24 5.3

Two to five years ago 82 18.1

Six to ten years ago 99 21.9

Eleven plus years ago 158 34.9

Missing 3 0.7

Item 51 gathered their grade point averages into six categories. The data is displayed in the Table 4.11 below.

Items 52 through 63 were concerned with the officers' motivations in seeking college. The chart in the Appendix B.5 shows that seeking job skills was most important, with enjoyment of learning being second, and TCLEOSE intermediate and advanced certificates being third. These are the same top three motivations as identified earlier as the top three motivations for seeking training.

Items 64 through 68 ask officers to estimate the percentage of their college that came in a particular area. There were five areas identified:

1. Criminal Justice and/or Law Enforcement.

2. Liberal Arts (English, Humanities, Arts, History, Economics, Languages).

3. Social Science (Sociology, Psychology, Political Science, Anthropology).

4. Social Professions (Social Work, Education, Business Administration).

5. Natural Science (Chemistry, Math, Statistics, Physics, Agriculture).

Table 4.11

Grade Point Averages

No College GPA 62 14.0

0.0 to 1.0 1 0.2

1.1 to 1.9 8 1.8

2.0 to 2.49 53 12.0

2.5 to 2.99 102 23.1

3.0 to 3.49 150 33.9

3.5 to 4.0 66 14.9

Missing 14 3.1

The complete results for items 64 through 68 are contained in the Appendix B.6. The mean percentage of the coursework by major areas taken from item 64 through item 68 gives an approximate percentage of the course taken from the different areas of the curriculum. In addition, item 69 also dealt with curriculum content. Item 69 asked for the major of the officer. The vast majority were criminal justice or law enforcement majors. Table 4.12 displays these results about course work content.

Item 70 asked them in what areas if any did they have the most prior criminal justice experience. Seventy percent reported no criminal justice experience prior to becoming a peace officer. Table 4.13 displays those results.

Item 71 asked the officers how many hours a week did they work at an off-duty security job. Fifty-six percent reported that they did spend some time working at an off-duty job. Complete results are shown in Appendix B.7.

Item 72 asked the officer how many years of prior experience did they have as a reserve law enforcement officer. Nearly eleven (10.8) percent reported at least one year of experience as a reserve. Of those reporting

Table 4.12

Percentage of Coursework by Areas

Major Area Mean Approximate Percent

Criminal Justice 3.39 33.9

Liberal Arts 2.12 21.2

Social Sciences 1.86 18.6

Social Profession 1.24 12.4

Natural Sciences 1.20 12.0

Major

No college or major 54 12.6

Criminal Justice 223 52.1

Liberal Arts 42 9.8

Social Sciences 26 6.1

Social Professions 56 13.1

Natural Sciences 27 6.3

N=428

Table 4.13

Prior Criminal Justice Experience

None 319 70.7

Clerical 14 3.1

Emergency Communications 13 2.9

Corrections 47 10.4

Reserve Law Enforcement 20 4.4

Probation or Parole 2 0.4

Other 36 8.0

N=451

Missing= 5

reserve experience, 63 percent were for two years or less.

Item 73 asked for the number of agencies worked for. The results indicated that 17.9 percent worked for more than one agency. Seventy-four percent of those who worked for more than one agency only worked for two agencies. Two individuals (0.5%) reported working for five agencies. Table 4.5 displays those results.

Items 74 through 86 records the number of years of experience in the different areas of law enforcement. Each area will be displayed individually below in Table 4.14 showing the percentage that worked at least one year in the specialty. The areas are: patrol, detention, emergency communications, administration, criminal investigation, civil warrants, criminal warrants, field training officer, training, crime prevention, research, planning, and crime analysis, juvenile, and other.

Item 87 records their total experience as a peace officer which ranges from one year to 35, with a mean of 12.3, a mode of 10, a median of 12, and a standard deviation of 7.60.

Table 4.14

Percent with Experience in a Specialization

Specialization Frequency Percent

Patrol 400 88.3

Detention 111 24.5

Emergency Communications 36 7.9

Administration 55 12.1

Criminal Investigation 156 34.4

Civil Warrants 7 1.5

Criminal Warrants 35 7.7

Field Training Officer 105 23.1

Training 52 11.5

Crime Prevention 20 4.4

Research and Planning 17 3.7

Juvenile Officer 24 5.3

Other Specialty 104 23.0

Item 88 asked for the number of promotions received. While 47.3 percent did not report receiving a promotion, 52.7 percent reported receiving at least one promotion. Table 4.15 displays those results.

Item 89 asked for the number of demotions received. Only six officers or 1.3 percent reported receiving a demotion.

Item 90 asked for their current rank. Over 45 percent were at a rank higher than officer. Table 4.16 displays those results.

Item 91 asked for their birth year. The range was from 1925 to 1971, with mean being 1954, the mode 1962, and the median 1956. This computes to a mean age of 38, a mode of 31, a median 37, and a standard deviation of 8.4. The graph in Figure 4.1 below displays those results.

Item 92 asked them to state their ethnic status into one of five categories. Table 4.3 displayed those results.

Items 94 through 104 asked them their years of experience at the different ranks within the organization. Table 4.17 displays the percentage and number of those who have any level of experience at a particular rank.

Table 4.15

Promotions

Number of

Promotions Frequency Percent

None 214 47.3

One 134 29.6

Two 61 13.5

Three 31 6.9

Four 8 1.8

Five 4 0.9

N=452

Missing= 4

Table 4.16

Current Rank

Current Rank Frequency Percent

Officer 249 54.8

Corporal 70 15.4

Sergeant 90 19.8

Lieutenant 29 6.4

Captain 11 2.4

Major 1 0.2

Deputy Chief 4 0.9

Chief Administrator 0 0.0

N=454

Missing= 2

Table 4.17

Experience as A Supervisor

Supervisory

Corporal 116 25.7

Sergeant 135 30.1

Lieutenant 38 8.4

Captain 15 3.3

Major 2 0.4

Deputy Chief 2 0.4

Asst. Chief 2 0.4

Chief Deputy 2 0.4

Constable 1 0.2

Chief 2 0.4

Sheriff 1 0.2

Item 105 records the total years of supervisory experience for the sample. The range is from 0 to 32 years of experience, the mean is 3.44, the mode after zero is two, the median is zero, and the standard deviation is 5.45.

Item 106 asked their beginning salary as a peace officer. This item has one of the highest levels of missing data with 99 cases missing. The explanation for this is because of two reasons. One, it is difficult to remember salaries years later, and second, people are reluctant to disclose their salary viewing it somewhat as an invasion of privacy. From the reported data, the range is from $200 to $2550, the mean is $1388, the mode is $1600, the median is $1509, and the standard deviation is $551.59.

Item 107 asked for their current salary as a peace officer. It too had a high level of missing data with 49 cases missing. The explanation for this has to be because of the privacy issue. From the reported data, the range is from $1500 to $5889, the mean is $2706, the mode is $3000, the median is $2667, and the standard deviation is 643.42.

Item 108 asks for the percentage of income from departmental overtime. Fifty-three percent report

Table 4.18

Percent of Income from Departmental Overtime

Percentage of

Income Frequency Percent

Zero 201 46.6

10 % 177 41.1

20 % 37 8.6

30 % 12 2.8

40 % or more 4 0.9

N=433

Missing= 25

income of up to 10 percent of their base salary from departmental overtime. Table 4.18 shows the results.

Fifty-five percent report income of up to 10 percent of their base salary from second job overtime. Nearly four percent report to receiving 40 percent or more from their second job income. Table 4.19 shows the results.

Information was also collected from the departments about their human resources practices to determine their effects on the officer's careers. This data was joined with the officer's data based on which department they were a member. Tables 4.20 show these results. Descriptions about the levels of a department's college incentive pay and certification pay are contained in Appendix B.8.

It was also necessary to look at the type and size of the department. Table 4.21 displays the number and percent of people belonging to departments of either a municipal police department or a county sheriff's department and the size of the department which includes all personnel.

Table 4.19

Percent of Income from Second Job Income

Percentage of

Income Frequency Percent

Zero 188 45.0

10 % 124 29.7

20 % 55 13.2

30 % 33 7.9

40 % or more 18 4.3

N=418

Missing= 38

Table 4.20

Departmental Practices and Policies

Civil Service 415 91.0

Written entry test 438 96.1

College entry requirement 157 34.4

Rotating shifts 174 38.2

Written promotion test 447 98.0

Promotion oral board 168 36.8

Promotion interview 107 23.5

Promotion assessment center 187 41.0

Promotion supervisor input 91 20.0

Promotion educational criteria 32 7.0

Promotion experience criteria 129 28.3

Promotion other criteria 84 18.4

College incentive pay 289 63.4

Certification pay 273 59.9

Incentive pay for tuition 153 33.6

Reimburse for tuition 238 52.2

College for promotion 45 8.9

Table 4.21

Type And Size Of Department

Type of Department

Type of Department Frequency Percent

Municipal 351 77.0

Sheriff's Department 105 23.0

Size of Department

Size of

Department Frequency Percent

50 to 199 41 9.0

200 to 999 170 37.3

1000+ 245 53.7

In this next section, I will present the analysis that relates to the research questions and hypotheses. This will result in either an acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis in the 23 stated hypotheses.

The research question asked is: Do officers who have more hours of college have a different professional orientation or a different career path experience? The following sections will deal with each hypothesis in turn to try to get at the impact of college education on the careers of peace officers in Texas.

1. Peace officers who have more hours of college will score higher on professionalism inventories.

This hypothesis was tested using a professionalism instrument as discussed in Chapter Three. Confirmatory factor analysis was done on the five professionalism constructs: service, regulation, calling, referent, and autonomy. In addition, the construct of alienation widely used in the literature as described in Chapters Two and Three was included. This confirmatory factor analysis resulted in the creation of sub factors in two of the constructs. The factor analysis created a regression factor score which was analyzed using analysis of variance. These constructs were then analyzed as dependent variables using analysis of variance with a college degree being the independent variable. The result of this analysis indicates on most of the constructs that those officers with a college degree do not score significantly differently from those without a degree. The specific construct by construct analysis follows. Table 4.22 below shows the results for all of the professionalism constructs.

The first factor looked at was service which measures belief in the importance of the policing occupation to society. The analysis of variance resulted in an F score of 2.879 with a significance level of .090 which was not within the .05 test of significance.

The second factor examined was regulation which measures belief in the ability to judge the competence of officers. Since the factor analysis created two separate factors regulation one was labeled belief in judging competence and regulation two was belief in knowing the competence. The analysis of variance for regulation one resulted in an F score of 2.079 with a significance level of .150 which was not within the .05 test of significance. The analysis of variance for regulation two resulted in an F score of 6.021 with a significance level of .014 which was within the .05 test of significance. The means between the two groups were, however, different in the wrong direction.

The third construct reviewed is calling which measures the belief in the respondent's calling to the field and the dedication of officers. Since the factor analysis created two separate factors calling one was labeled dedication or commitment calling and calling two was idealistic calling. The analysis of variance for calling one resulted in an F score of 5.419 with a significance level of .020 which was within the .05 test of significance. The means between the two groups were different in the wrong direction. The analysis of variance for calling two resulted in an F score of .004 with a significance level of .950 which was not within the .05 test of significance.

A fourth construct looked at was referent which taps the use of professional organizations as major referents. The analysis of variance resulted in an F score of .086 with a significance level of .770 which was not within the .05 test of significance.

A fifth factor examined was autonomy which measures the belief about the person's ability to make independent decisions about their work performance. The analysis of variance resulted in an F score of .257 with a significance level of .613 which was not within the .05 test of significance.

A sixth construct reviewed was alienation which measures one's satisfaction with their job. The analysis of variance resulted in an F score of .002 with a significance level of .963 which was not within the .05 test of significance.

Since only two of the constructs were related to whether one has a college degree, and those were negatively related, it is clear that the hypothesis is not supported. The null hypothesis is accepted.

Table 4.22

Professionalism and College Degree

Significance

Service 2.879 .090

Regulation 1 2.079 .150

Regulation 2 6.089 .014*

Calling 1 5.419 .020*

Calling 2 .004 .952

Referent .086 .770

Autonomy .257 .613

Alienation .002 .963

*Statistically significant differences, but in the

wrong direction

2. Peace officers who have more hours of college will be promoted more frequently.

This hypothesis was tested by using analysis of variance with number of promotions as the dependent variable and amount of college as the independent variable controlling for years of experience. Table 4.23 shows that the difference is statistically significant.

It should be noted that the mean for promotions for the group with one to 59 hours is less than the zero hours group. If the data were grouped as in Table 4.24, the pattern would differ. Many have argued for an associate Degree requirement or sixty hours for educational level while others have pushed for the full bachelors degree. It appears that both cut off points indicate a significant gain in outcome. The hypothesis is supported. The null hypothesis is rejected.

3. Peace officers who have more hours of college will have higher rank.

This hypothesis was tested in two ways by Chi-Square and analysis of variance. First by constructing a simple cross tabulation and doing a Chi-Square. Table 4.25 shows the results with a clear trend linking higher levels of college with rank.

Table 4.23

Promotions by College

Promotions

Amount of College Number Mean Score

Zero hours of college 61 0.74

1 to 59 hours 151 0.56

60 to 119 hours 102 1.01

120+ hours 135 1.24

Total Sample Mean 0.89

Analysis of Variance

E88 Promotions

by Col Level of College

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 115.814 1 115.814 132.565 .000

Main Effects

Col 23.160 3 7.720 8.837 .000

Explained 138.974 4 34.743 39.769 .00

Residual 387.895 444 0.874

Total 526.869 448 1.176

Multiple R Squared .264

456 cases processed. 7 cases (1.5 pct) were missing.

Table 4.24

Promotions by College Levels with Alternative Break Points

Promotions

Amount of College Number Mean Score

Zero to 59 hours 212 0.61

60 to 119 hours 102 1.01

120+ hours 135 1.24

Total Sample Mean 0.89

Analysis of Variance

E88 Promotions

by Col3 Level of College

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 115.814 1 115.814 132.837 .000

Main Effects

Col 23.080 2 11.540 13.236 .000

Explained 138.894 3 46.298 53.103 .00

Residual 387.975 445 0.872

Total 526.869 448 1.176

Multiple R Squared .264

456 cases processed 7 cases (1.5 pct) were missing.

Table 4.25

Current Rank by Amount of College

Amount of College

Rank Zero 1 to 59 60 to 119 120+ Number

Officer 15.7% 43.4% 19.7% 21.3% 249

Corporal 4.3% 24.3% 40.0% 31.4% 70

Sergeant 18.9% 20.0% 15.6% 45.6% 90

Lieutenant 6.9% 20.7% 27.6% 44.8% 29

Captain 9.1% 27.3% 18.2% 45.5% 11

Major 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 0.0% 1

Deputy Chief 0.0% 0.0% 25.0% 75.0% 4

Total 13.7% 33.5% 22.7% 30.2% 454

Number of Missing Observations: 2

Table 4.26

Amount of College by Rank

Years of Supervisory

Amount of College Experience

Zero hours of college 1.76

1 to 59 hours 1.55

60 to 119 hours 1.97

120+ hours 2.33

Total Sample Mean 1.91

Analysis of Variance

E105 Total Supervisory Experience

by Col Level of College

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 176.529 1 176.529 171.665 .000

Main Effects

Col 28.104 3 9.368 9.110 .000

Explained 204.633 4 51.158 49.749 .00

Residual 458.639 446 1.028

Total 663.273 450 1.474

456 cases processed 5 cases (1.1 pct) were missing.

These differences were shown to be significantly different by using Pearson's Chi-Square. The F value was 60.81 with a significance level of 0.000.

The second test run was an analysis of variance. The comparison of rank by amount of college controlling through covariance for years of experience. The means for the four levels does not indicate a straight linear impact for college. Table 4.26 shows that some college, but less than 60 does not have a positive impact upon rank. The hypothesis is supported. The null hypothesis is rejected.

4. Peace officers who have more hours of college will have more years of experience in a supervisory capacity.

This hypothesis was tested by using analysis of variance. Total years of supervisory/management experience was factored with college level (both the associate degree or 60 hour level and the bachelor degree level) and controlling for total experience. Table 4.27 shows an F of 6.793 for college with a significance level of 0.001. The hypothesis is accepted, and the null hypothesis is rejected.

5. Peace officers with a higher grade point average (GPA) will receive more promotions.

This hypothesis was tested using analysis of variance. Number of promotions served as the dependent variable and GPA served as the independent variable controlling for years of experience. Because there were only nine cases with a GPA below 2.0, they were combined into the category for below 2.5 for purposes of this analysis. Table 4.28 shows the results which indicates that as GPA goes up so do the number of promotions. The F score of 3.626 was significant at the .013 level. This hypothesis is accepted, and the null hypothesis is rejected.

6. Peace officers with a higher grade point average will have a higher rank.

This hypothesis was tested using analysis of variance. Rank served as the dependent variable and GPA served as the independent variable controlling for years of experience. The GPA categories were as stated in the previous section. Table 4.29 shows the results which indicates that as GPA goes up so does rank. The F score of 4.873 was significant at the .002 level. This hypothesis is accepted, and the null hypothesis is rejected.

Table 4.27

Amount of College by Supervisory Experience

Years of

Amount of College Experience

Zero to 59 hours of college 2.34

60 to 119 hours 3.87

120+ hours 4.85

Total Sample Mean 3.44

Analysis of Variance

E105 Total Super/Management Experience

by Col3 College Level

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 4952.456 1 4952.456 274.849 .000

Main Effects

Col3 244.798 2 122.399 6.793 .001

Explained 5197.254 3 1732.418 96.145 .00

Residual 7946.296 441 18.019

Total 13143.551 444 29.603

Multiple R Squared .395

456 cases processed 11 cases (2.4 pct) were missing.

Table 4.28

Promotions by Grade Point Average (GPA)

Mean Number

Below 2.49 0.54 61

2.5 to 2.99 0.88 100

3.0 to 3.49 1.01 149

3.5 to 4.0 1.20 64

Analysis of Variance

E88 Promotions

by GPA Grade Point Average

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 98.341 1 98.341 103.487 .000

Main Effects

GPA 10.336 3 3.445 3.626 .013

Explained 108.678 4 27.169 28.591 .00

Residual 350.651 369 .950

Total 459.329 373 1.231

Multiple R Squared .273

456 cases processed 82 cases (18.0 pct) were missing.

Table 4.29

Rank by Grade Point Average (GPA)

Below 2.49 1.47 62

2.5 to 2.99 1.87 101

3.0 to 3.49 2.03 148

3.5 to 4.0 2.30 64

Analysis of Variance

E90 Rank

by GPA Grade Point Average

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 148.937 1 148.937 135.176 .000

Main Effects

GPA 16.107 3 5.369 4.873 .002

Explained 165.043 4 41.261 37.449 .00

Residual 407.666 370 1.102

Total 572.709 374 1.531

Multiple R Squared .288

456 cases processed 81 cases (17.8 pct) were missing.

7. Peace officers with a higher grade point average will have a higher current salary.

This hypothesis was tested using analysis of variance. Current Salary served as the dependent variable and GPA served as the independent variable controlling for years of experience. The GPA categories were as stated in the previous section. Table 4.30 shows the results which indicates that as GPA goes up so does current salary. The F score of 3.233 was significant at the .020 level. This hypothesis is accepted, and the null hypothesis is rejected.

8. Peace officers with a higher grade point average (GPA) will have had a greater gain in their salary.

This hypothesis was tested using analysis of variance. Salary Gain served as the dependent variable and GPA served as the independent variable controlling for years of experience. The GPA categories were as stated in the previous section. Table 4.31 shows the results which indicates that as GPA goes up so does the gain in salary. The F score of 3.022 was significant at the .030 level. This hypothesis is accepted, and the null hypothesis is rejected.

Table 4.30

Current Salary by Grade Point Average (GPA)

GPA Level Current Salary Number

Below 2.49 2446 55

2.5 to 2.99 2719 94

3.0 to 3.49 2801 131

3.5 to 4.0 2859 57

Analysis of Variance

S107 Current Salary

by GPA Grade Point Average

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 47087533 1 47087533 167.354 .000

Main Effects

GPA 2805173 3 935058 3.233 .020

Explained 4982706 4 12473176 44.331 .00

Residual 93413248 332 281365

Total 143305954 336 426506

Multiple R Squared .348

456 cases processed 119 cases (26.1 pct) were missing.

Table 4.31

Gain by Grade Point Average (GPA)

GPA Level Mean Gain Number

Below 2.49 927 50

2.5 to 2.99 1252 80

3.0 to 3.49 1495 112

3.5 to 4.0 1442 48

Analysis of Variance

GAIN Salary Gain

by GPA Grade Point Average

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 170325257 1 17032527 503.318 .000

Main Effects

GPA 3068165 3 1022722 3.022 .030

Explained 173393422 4 43348356 128.096 .000

Residual 96445316 285 338405

Total 269838738 289 933698

Multiple R Squared .643

456 cases processed 166 cases (36.4 pct) were missing.

9. Peace officers with a higher grade point average will have more years of specialized experience.

This hypothesis was tested using analysis of variance. Years of Specialized Experience served as the dependent variable and GPA served as the independent variable controlling for years of experience. The GPA categories were as stated in the previous section. Table 4.32 shows the results which indicates that as GPA goes up so do years of specialization, but not significantly. The F score of 1.189 was significant at the .314 level. This hypothesis is not accepted, and the null hypothesis is accepted.

10. Peace officers who have more hours of college will be more likely to have worked in a specialized career assignment.

This hypothesis was tested by computing the total years of experience in a specialized function, that is, administration, criminal investigation, civil warrants, criminal warrants, field training officer, training, crime prevention, research, juvenile, and other. This total years of specialized experience was covaried with total years of experience as peace officer before the main effects of college degree were computed. The results shown in the Table 4.33 below indicate that a

Table 4.32

Years of Specialization by Grade Point Average (GPA)

Mean Years of

GPA Level Specialization Number

Below 2.49 3.95 62

2.5 to 2.99 5.03 101

3.0 to 3.49 6.46 147

3.5 to 4.0 6.03 64

Analysis of Variance

SPEC Years of Specialization

by GPA Grade Point Average

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 8299.182 1 8299.182 434.660 .000

Main Effects

GPA 68.084 3 22.695 1.189 .314

Explained 8367.266 4 2091.816 109.557 .000

Residual 7045.496 369 19.093

Total 15412.762 373 41.321

Multiple R Squared .543

456 cases processed 82 cases (18.0 pct) were missing.

Table 4.33

College Level by Specialized Experience

Mean Years of

Degree Specialization Number

Less than 60 hours 4.41 213

60 to 119 hours 5.88 102

Bachelor's Degree

or Greater 6.74 134

Analysis of Variance

SPEC Years of Specialization

by Col3 College Level

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 9359.482 1 9359.482 468.593 .000

Main Effects

Col3 133.157 2 66.578 3.396 .036

Explained 9492.638 3 3164.213 158.709 .000

Residual 8872.048 445 19.937

Total 18364.686 448 40.993

Multiple R Squared .517

456 cases processed 7 cases (1.5 pct) were missing.

college degree has some effect with an F of 3.396 at a level of significance of 0.036. The hypothesis is supported, and the null hypothesis is rejected.

11. Peace officers who have more hours of college will make higher salaries.

An analysis of variance was done looking at current salary as the dependent variable and whether one had a college degree as the independent variables with total experience as the covariate. Table 4.34 shows that having a college degree is significantly related to one's current salary with an F of 14.535 at a level of significance below .001.

This analysis of variance Table indicates that those people with more than 60 hours of college make more than those with less, and that those with more than 120 hours or a college degree equivalent do make a higher salary than those who do not have a degree and that the difference is statistically significant. The hypothesis is supported. The null hypothesis is rejected.

Table 4.34

Current Salary by Amount of College

Mean

Degree Salary Number

Less than 60 hours $2561 188

60 to 119 hours $2689 93

Bachelor's Degree

or Greater $2957 123

Sample Mean $2711 404

Analysis of Variance

S107 Current Salary

by Col3 College Level

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 54137638 1 54137637.680 208.425 .000

Main Effects

Col3 7551082 2 3775540 14.535 .000

Explained 61688720 3 20562906.522 79.165 .00

Residual 103898513 400 259746.282

Total 1065587232 403 410886.432

Multiple R Squared .373

456 cases processed 52 cases (11.4 pct) were missing.

12. Peace officers who have more hours of college will have made greater gains in their salary from the beginning of their career.

An analysis of variance was done looking at gain in salary as the dependent variable and whether one had a college degree and amount of training as the independent variables with total experience as the covariate. Table 4.35 shows that having a college degree is significantly related to one's gain in salary with an F of 8.98 at a level of significance below 0.001.

This analysis of variance Table indicates that those people with a college degree either at the associate's level or bachelor's level have made greater gains in their salary than those who do not have a degree and that the difference is statistically significant. The hypothesis is supported, and the null hypothesis is rejected.

Table 4.35

Salary Gain by Amount of College

Mean

Degree Gain Number

Less than 60 hours $1109 165

60 to 119 hours $1266 72

Bachelor's Degree

or Greater $1596 109

Sample Mean $1295 346

Analysis of Variance

Gain Gain in Salary

by Col3 College Level

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 203146166 1 203146165 638.828 .000

Main Effects

Col3 5711401 2 2855700 8.980 .000

Explained 208857567 3 69619188 218.929 .000

Residual 108755420 342 317998

Total 317612986 345 920617

Multiple R Squared .658

456 cases processed 110 cases (24.1 pct) were missing.

The research question asked is: Do officers who have more hours of in-service training differ in terms of professional orientation or differ in career path experience?

The following sections will deal with each hypothesis in turn to try to get at the impact of inservice training on the careers of peace officers in Texas.

13. Peace officers who have more hours of inservice training will have a higher score on professionalism inventories.

This hypothesis was tested using the professionalism instrument discussed in Chapter Three. Confirmatory factor analysis was done on the five professionalism constructs: service, regulation, calling, referent, and autonomy. In addition, the construct of alienation widely used in the literature as described in Chapters Two and Three was included.

The confirmatory factor analysis resulted in the creation of sub factors in two of the constructs. The factor analysis created a regression factor score which was analyzed using analysis of variance. This score was the dependent variable and one's level of training was the independent variable. These constructs were then analyzed as dependent variables using analysis of variance with a college degree being the independent variable. The result of this analysis indicates on most of the constructs that those officers with higher levels of training do not score significantly differently from those with lower levels of training. The specific construct by construct analysis follows. Table 4.36 below shows the results for all of the professionalism constructs.

The first factor looked at was service which measures belief in the importance of the policing occupation to society. The analysis of variance resulted in an F score of .528 with a significance level of .663 which was not within the .05 test of significance standard.

The second factor examined was regulation which measures the ability to judge the competence of officers. Since the factor analysis created two separate factors regulation one was labeled judging competence and regulation two was knowing the competence. The analysis of variance for regulation one resulted in an F score of 1.277 with a significance level of .282. The analysis of variance for regulation two resulted in an F score of .371 with a significance level of .774. Neither of the scores were within the .05 test of significance standard.

The third construct reviewed is calling which measures the belief in the respondent's calling to the field and the dedication of officers. Since the factor analysis created two separate factors calling one was labeled dedicated or commitment calling and calling two was idealistic calling. The analysis of variance for calling one resulted in an F score of 1.200 with a significance level of .309. The analysis of variance for calling two resulted in an F score of 2.158 with a significance level of .096. Neither of the scores were within the .05 test of significance standard.

A fourth construct looked at was referent which taps the use of professional organizations as major referents. The analysis of variance resulted in an F score of 6.299 with a significance level of .000 which was within the .05 test of significance.

A fifth factor examined was autonomy which measures the belief about the person's ability to make independent decisions about their work performance. The analysis of variance resulted in an F score of 2.271 with a significance level of .089 which was not within the .05 test of significance.

A sixth construct reviewed was alienation which measures one's satisfaction with his job. The analysis of variance resulted in an F score of 2.416 with a significance level of .066 which was not within the .05 test of significance.

Since only one of the constructs is positively related to amount of training, the overall professionalism scale does not appear to be related to amount of training. The hypothesis cannot be supported. The null hypothesis is accepted.

14. Peace officers who have more hours of inservice training have received more promotions.

This hypothesis was tested using analysis of variance to compare the mean number of promotions by the amount of training they have received controlling for years of experience. Table 4.37 displays the results. The hypothesis cannot be accepted because the differences were not statistically significant. The significance of F was only 0.140 which is considerably above the 0.05 level. The null hypothesis is accepted.

15. Peace officers who have more hours of inservice training will have a higher rank.

This hypothesis was tested using analysis of variance. The dependent variable was rank and the amount of inservice was the independent variable with total experience being covaried out. The results with

an F score of 5.078 and a significance level of .002 are shown in Table 4.38. They show that training does have a positive effect on rank. The null hypothesis is rejected.

16. Peace officers who have more training will have more years of experience in a supervisory capacity.

This hypothesis was tested using analysis of variance of the effects of training on number of years of supervisory and management experience controlling for years of experience. The results in Table 4.39 show support for this hypothesis. The F score of 6.701 was significant below .001. The null hypothesis is rejected.

Table 4.36

Professionalism and Level of Training

Significance

Construct F-Score of F

Service .528 .663

Regulation 1 1.277 .282

Regulation 2 .371 .774

Calling 1 1.200 .309

Calling 2 2.130 .096

Referent 6.299 .000*

Autonomy 2.171 .089

Alienation 2.4166 .066

*Statistically Significant

Table 4.37

Promotions by Training

Number of

Amount Frequency Promotions

Zero to 200 103 0.48

201 to 400 103 0.82

401 to 600 78 0.82

601 plus 113 1.42

Missing 59 12.9%

Analysis of Variance

E88 Number of Promotions

by Train Amount of Training

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 103.187 1 103.187 109.442 .000

Main Effects

Train 5.190 3 1.730 1.835 .140

Explained 108.376 4 27.094 28.737 .00

Residual 369.594 392 0.943

Total 477.970 396 1.207

Multiple R Squared .227

456 cases processed 59 cases (12.9 pct) were missing.

17. Peace officers who have more hours of inservice training will have more specialized career assignments.

This hypothesis was tested using analysis of variance. The dependent variable was years of specialization and the independent variable was amount of training. Table 4.40 appears to show a relationship between amount of training and years of specialization. But the analysis of variance Table which controls for years of experience ends up at the significance level of .537 which does not show a relationship between training and years of specialization. The null hypothesis is accepted.

18. Peace officers who have more hours of inservice training make a higher salary.

This hypothesis was tested using analysis of variance of the effects of training on current salary controlling for years of experience. The results shown in Table 4.41 indicate weak support for this hypothesis. These effects show a link between current salary and training with an F score of 2.864 at the .037 significance level. The hypothesis is accepted. The null hypothesis is rejected.

Table 4.38

Current Rank by Training

Current

Amount Frequency Rank `

Zero to 200 104 1.36

201 to 400 104 1.69

401 to 600 78 1.90

601 plus 112 2.67

Missing 58 12.7%

Analysis of Variance

E90 Current Rank

by Train Amount of Training

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 164.851 1 164.8511 150.698 .000

Main Effects

Train 16.665 3 5.555 5.078 .002

Explained 181.516 4 45.379 41.483 .00

Residual 429.911 393 1.094

Total 611.427 397 1.540

Multiple R Squared .297

456 cases processed 58 cases (12.7 pct) were missing.

Table 4.39

Training and Supervisory Experience

Supervisory

Amount Frequency Experience

Zero to 200 102 0.90

201 to 400 103 2.15

401 to 600 78 3.18

601 plus 109 7.02

Missing 64 14.0%

Analysis of Variance

E105 Total Super./Man.Experience

by Train Amount of Training

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 4178.011 1 4178.011 228.165 .000

Main Effects

Train 368.094 3 122.698 6.701 .000

Explained 4546.106 4 1136.526 62.067 .00

Residual 7086.496 387 18.311

Total 11632.602 391 29.751

Multiple R Squared .391

456 cases processed 64 cases (14.0 pct) were missing.

19. Peace officers who have more hours of inservice training have made greater gains in their salary from the beginning of their career.

This hypothesis was tested using analysis of variance of the effects of training on gain in salary controlling for years of experience. The results in Table 4.42 indicate support for this hypothesis, but not to the point of statistical significance. The level of significance of the differences once we have controlled for years of experience rise only to the level of 0.063 which is above the 0.05 level. The null hypothesis must be accepted.

Table 4.40

Specialization and Training

Specialization

Amount Frequency Experience

Zero to 200 103 1.99

201 to 400 104 4.63

401 to 600 77 5.88

601 plus 113 8.78

Missing 59 12.9%

Analysis of Variance

SPEC Total Specialization Experience

by Train Amount of Training

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 8304.807 1 8304.807 425.153 .000

Main Effects

Train 42.548 3 14.183 0.726 .537

Explained 8347.355 4 2086.839 106.833 .000

Residual 7657.214 392 19.534

Total 16004.569 396 40.416

Multiple R Squared .522

456 cases processed 59 cases (12.9 pct) were missing.

Table 4.41

Salary and Training

Training Salary in

Amount Frequency Dollars

Zero to 200 92 2327

201 to 400 97 2737

401 to 600 66 2782

601 plus 102 3072

Missing 99 21.7%

Analysis of Variance

S107 Current Salary

by Train Amount of Training

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 47677196 1 47647195.537 166.618 .000

Main Effects

Train 2457055 3 819018.361 2.864 .037

Explained 50104251 4 12526062.655 43.803 .00

Residual 100659983 352 285965.862

Total 105764234 356 423495.039

Multiple R Squared .332

456 cases processed 99 cases (21.7 pct) were missing.

Table 4.42

Salary Gain and Training

Salary Gain

Zero to 200 84 580

201 to 400 84 1354

401 to 600 57 1473

601 plus 84 1960

Missing 147 32.2%

Analysis of Variance

Gain Salary Gain

by Train Amount of Training

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 182799088 1 182799088 553.221 .000

Main Effects

Train 2436071 3 812023 2.457 .063

Explained 185235159 4 46308789 140.148 .00

Residual 100449722 304 330426

Total 285684881 308 927548

Multiple R Squared .648

456 cases processed 147 cases (32.2 pct) were missing.

The research questions asked: What is the relationship between college education and training? What effects does departmental policy have on the human resource development activities of peace officers?

20. Peace officers who have more hours of college will have received more hours of inservice training.

This hypothesis was tested by doing an analysis of variance looking at the amount of inservice training as the dependent variable and whether one had a college degree as the independent variable total experience was covaried out of the analysis. While there was some slight difference between those with a degree and those without once years of experience was removed, the differences were not statistically significant. Table 4.43 shows an F score of 1.294 at a significance level of .256 which indicates that this hypothesis is not true.

Another test was run using a correlation analysis between amount of training and number of college hours to test the hypothesis. The correlation coefficient was only 0.0646 and was not statistically significant. The hypothesis is not supported using this test either. The null hypothesis is accepted.

21. Peace officers who work for a department with an educational incentive plan will have more hours of college.

This hypothesis was tested using analysis of variance with number of hours of college as the dependent variable and whether an agency had an educational incentive plan as the independent variable controlling for years of experience. As Table 4.44 shows with an F score of .36 and a significance level of .850, there was no difference statistically between the two groups. The null hypothesis is accepted.

22. Peace officers who work for a department with a TCLEOSE Certification incentive plan will have more hours of college.

This hypothesis was tested by looking at the variation between departments with a TCLEOSE Certification pay program and those without. Using Chi-Square analysis with the cross tabulation, we can see in Table 4.45 the variation in the amount of college. The differences were significantly different between the

Table 4.43

College Degree by Amount of Training

Level of

College Degree Training Number

Yes 4.94 118

No 4.35 281

Sample Level 4.52 399

Analysis of Variance

T39 Amount of Inservice

by Col4 College Degree

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 848.696 1 848.696 195.487 .000

Main Effects

Col4 5.617 1 5.617 1.294 .256

Explained 854.313 2 427.156 98.390 .00

Residual 1719.211 396 4.341

Total 2573.211 398 6.466

Multiple R Squared .332

456 cases processed 57 cases (12.5 pct) were missing.

cells with a Pearson Chi-Square F value of 10.97 and a significance level of 0.01, but it is in the opposite direction stated in the hypothesis. The null hypothesis is accepted.

23. Peace officers who work for a department with a TCLEOSE Certification incentive plan will have more hours of training.

This hypothesis was tested by using analysis of variance to look at the effects of departmental policy on the amount of training. The dependent variable is amount of training and the independent variable is whether a department had a incentive pay system for TCLEOSE Certification with the amount of experience being covaried out. The data in Table 4.46 supports the contention that departmental policy in rewarding TCLEOSE Certification positively effects the amount of inservice training received. The F score of 14.337 was significant at the .000 level. The null hypothesis is rejected.

This concludes the data reporting of the study. In the next chapter, I will discuss the implications, meaning, conclusions and recommendations drawn from this data.

Table 4.44

Hours of College by Educational Incentive Pay Plan

Hours of

Incentive Pay College Number

Yes 73.47 275

No 74.08 159

Sample Level 73.70 434

Analysis of Variance

C49 Hours of College

by Col4 College Incentive Pay

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 7385.140 1 7385.140 2.119 .146

Main Effects

D15 124.156 1 124.156 0.36 .850

Explained 7509.296 2 3754.648 1.077 .341

Residual 1502216.557 431 3485.421

Total 1509725.853 433 3486.665

Multiple R Squared .005

456 cases processed 22 cases (4.8 pct) were missing.

Table 4.45

College by Certification Pay

Certification Pay

Amount of College Yes No

Zero Hours 79.0% 21.0%

1 to 59 Hours 56.9% 43.1%

60 to 119 Hours 56.7% 43.3%

120+ Hours 56.9% 43.1%

Table 4.46

Level of Training by TCLEOSE Certification Pay Plan

Certification Level of

Incentive Pay Training Number

Yes 4.91 242

No 3.93 157

Sample Level 4.52 399

Analysis of Variance

T39 Amount of Inservice

by D16 Certification Pay

with E87 Total Experience

Sum of Sig

Source of Variation Squares DF Mean Square F of F

Covariates

E87 848.696 1 848.696 201.905 .000

Main Effects

D16 60.265 1 60.265 14.337 .000

Explained 908.960 2 454.480 108.121 .00

Residual 1664.563 396 4.203

Total 2573.524 398 6.466

Multiple R Squared .353

456 cases processed 57 cases (12.5 pct) were missing.

This chapter is divided into three main sections. Section one will summarize the study and the results. Section two will then discuss and interpret the results described in Chapter Four. The last section of the chapter will make recommendations for policy makers and for future research.

This study developed because of a need to understand the career development activities and their impact among Texas peace officers. The study described the levels of human resource development activities of the 36 largest law enforcement agencies in Texas representing 21,065+ peace officers, 45 percent of all Texas peace officers. In addition, 23 hypotheses were tested which assessed the impact of human resource development activities on the careers of officers.

The data was collected from a random survey of officers in the selected departments. Six hundred fifty-eight surveys were distributed, and 69.3 per cent were returned and usable.

The sample was slightly divergent in terms of gender from all Texas peace officers with 17.2 percent being female as opposed to 12.2 percent for all Texas peace officers. There also was a slightly higher representation of minorities with 18.7 percent being minority as opposed to the 13.2 percent for all Texas peace officers. Both of these are indications of the urban nature of the sample.

The sample also had slightly fewer officers under age 25 and over age 50 than all Texas peace officers. Also, 82.1 percent of the sample have only worked for one department compared to the statewide rate of 69.9 percent. There were only 17.8 percent of the sample with less than five years experience which is different from the statewide rate of 31.2 percent. These are tendencies to be expected with predominantly urban departments that are under civil service systems which promotes stability, restrictions on the ability to make lateral transfers between agencies, and 20 year retirements.

The questionnaire included twenty-five items that have been accepted in the literature as representing important constructs of the concept of professionalism (Hall, 1968; Snizek, 1972; Regoli & Poole, 1980; Regoli, Crank, Culbertson, & Poole, 1987 & 1989; Crank, 1990; and Crank, Payn, & Jackson, 1991). The small standard deviations on these constructs indicates that there is wide-spread consensus on these items among all peace officers in the sample (See Table 4.7). Peace officers in the sample seem to have adopted these attributes of professionalism whether through education, training, or organizational culture.

The item responses on motivation for training and higher education indicate a wide variety of motivations for obtaining them. The three most important motivators for both seeking training and seeking college were desire to improve one's job skills, enjoyment of learning, and receiving TCLEOSE Certification (See Appendix B.4).

The "typical officer" as derived from looking at the background data is an anglo male 38 years old with 12 years of experience. and who attended a basic training course of 571 hours at a local academy. He has 74 hours of college with GPA over 3.0 most of which was obtained pre-service, more than six years ago. He has received one promotion with 3.44 years of supervisory experience. He has around 400 hours of inservice training and an advanced certificate. His beginning salary was $1388, and his current salary is $2706. He receives an another 10% for departmental overtime, plus an additional 10% for off-duty overtime, for a total income of more than $3000 per month.

Over one-half of the officers were criminal justice majors. Around one-third of the officers' course work was in criminal justice with only 6.8 percent currently attending college. Only 29.3 percent had prior criminal justice experience. One-third have worked in criminal investigations, and one-quarter have worked in detention while 88.3 percent have worked in patrol.

Ninety-one percent work in a civil service department with 96.1 percent hired by written exam and 98 percent work in departments with written promotional testing. Sixty-three percent of the officers work in departments with college incentive pay and 59.9 percent work in departments with TCLEOSE certification pay. Thirty-four percent of the officers work for departments that have some college entry requirement.

Seventy-seven percent of the sample works in municipal departments and ninety-one percent work in departments with over 200 staff members (See Table 4.21).

The three focuses of this research have been to determine (1) the impact of higher education on the professionalism and careers of peace officers, (2) the impact of training on the professionalism and careers of peace officers, and (3) the relationship between higher education and training. Twenty-three hypotheses were put forward to more carefully focus on these three areas. These hypotheses have been stated in both chapters one and four. Table 5.1 which follows provides a summary of the results reported in Chapter Four.

Table 5.1 shows that fifteen of the 23 hypotheses were statistically significant. We discuss and interpret these results in the next section.

Table 5.1

Hypotheses Test Results

Acceptance of

1. College on Professionalism No .447(NS)*

2. College on Promotions Yes .000

3. College on Rank Yes .000

4. College on Supervisory Exper. Yes .001

5. G.P.A. on Promotions Yes .013

6. G.P.A. on Rank Yes .002

7. G.P.A. on Salary Yes .020

8. G.P.A. on Salary Gain Yes .030

9. G.P.A. on Specialization No .314(NS)

10. College on Specialization Yes .036

11. College on Salaries Yes .000

12. College Salary Gain Yes .000

13. Inservice on Professionalism No .285(NS)*

14. Inservice on Promotions No .140(NS)

15. Inservice on Rank Yes .002

16. Inservice on Supervisory Exper.Yes .000

17. Inservice on Specialization No .537(NS)

18. Inservice on Salary Yes .037

19. Inservice on Salary Gain No .063(NS)

20. College on Inservice No .256(NS)

21. Incentive Pay on College No .341(NS)

22. Certification Pay on College No .001**

23. Certification Pay on Training Yes .000

*Mean of Significance Level of Professionalism Constructs

**Significant, but opposite direction of hypothesis

The descriptive data shows a profession that is serious about its human resource development activities. Peace officers are obtaining a large quantity of training that has been provided to them. In addition, the majority are receiving incentive pay for obtaining either college or hours of training along with experience. Since 80.8 percent have obtained an Intermediate Certificate and 57.7 percent have obtained an Advanced Certificate, this indicates a significant amount of education and training has been undertaken. If officers have received a 571 hour basic training course and around 400 hours of inservice, then we are talking about a considerable investment in training. While an average of 74 college hours may not meet the goals set by national commissions as discussed in Chapter Two, it represents progress and a significant investment when one considers that 30 percent have a bachelor's degree or better.

The bachelor degree level compares favorably to the PERF 1988 study (Carter, Sapp, & Stephens, 1988) and a 1989 Colorado study (Copley, 1992). This study finds Texas ahead of the national PERF study, but behind Colorado. Table 5.2 below shows the comparison.

In 1970 the number of peace officers with 60 hours of college or more was 15 percent (Carter, Sapp, & Stephens, 1988). It can be seen in Table 5.2 that we have made considerable progress since then. It should be noted that Colorado is a very different state than Texas. They have only 254 law enforcement agencies in the state with only 7,314 officers (Copley, 1992). Texas has ten times as many agencies and nearly seven times as many officers. It should also be noted that Texas had a higher percentage of officers with at least some college.

Only 6.8 percent of the sample were currently attending college courses. Sixty-five percent of those who have attended college did so six or more years ago. This brings into question the impact of college incentive pay. While this item about motivation to attend college was found to have the fourth highest

Table 5.2

Comparison of Texas Peace Officers with National Study and Colorado Study

No College 34.8% 17.7% 13.6%

Less than 2 years 20.5% 12.7% 33.6%

2 to 3 years 22.1% 31.1% 22.8%

4 years or more 22.6% 38.6% 30.0%

mean, only slightly behind the TCLEOSE certification, it also had one of the highest standard deviations of the college motivation items (See Appendix B.7). This indicates that it may be effective for some, but not for all the officers. TCLEOSE certification level pay seems to have more impact and will be discussed below in the section on hypotheses testing.

Most of the college hours are achieved before service as a peace officer with 49 percent of those with college hours obtaining 90 percent of their college hours before employment and 67 percent acquiring at least 50 percent of their hours pre-service (See Appendix B.4). This indicates that officers are going so far in college and then fail to continue. This lack of continuation indicates that their motivation drops off. This drop off could be caused by lack of incentives for continuing, in terms of, promotional opportunities, inadequately funded or non-existent pay for knowledge programs, or college course work that does not meet their needs, in terms of quality, availability, or relevance.

It is interesting that younger and less experienced officers are less likely to have a college degree. Table 5.3 which shows the percentage of each age group that have a college degree shows that officers under 30 are less likely to be college graduates. Table 5.4 shows that officers with less than ten years of experience are less likely to have a college degree. Officers with 15 to 19 years of experience were most likely to have a college degree. This is probably the result of the demise of the Law Enforcement Assistance Agency (LEAA), and their Law Enforcement Education Program (LEEP). Under Federal leadership in the 1970s, there was intense interest and encouragement for officers to go to college. LEEP funds were often combined by officers with the GI Bill for those coming out of the Vietnam War to finance educational pursuits. In 1974, there were 88 colleges in Texas that offered a criminal justice or law enforcement program, the number now is approximately 45 (Laine, 1993).

Unless current inservice participation in college programs increases or hiring standards include college minimums are increased, we could be facing a less educated officer corps in the future as retirements affect the officer work force. The 21st century calls for a more educated officer, not a less educated officer.

The grade point averages (G.P.A.) of those attending college was relatively high with 56.8 percent reporting a 3.0 G.P.A. or better. This could be attributed to selection based upon written exams since 96.1 percent were selected through written examination. This would indicate a close relationship between selection tests and college. It suggests that college selection requirements could be used in place of written examinations.

Criminal justice majors were 52.1 percent of the sample which is 60 percent of those having attended college and chose a major. Research in the business field by Ariss and Timmins (1989) found that being a non-business major as opposed to a business major had no affect on job performance. Madell and Washburn (1978) in a law enforcement study found it have an effect on promotions and interpersonal relations. It was beyond the scope of this study to focus on the effects of college major.

Prior criminal justice experience was present for 30.3 percent of the sample. Corrections was the most prevalent prior experience with 10.4 percent. This was 35.6 percent of those with prior experience. It is the

Table 5.3

College Degree by Age Category

Percentage with

Age Category Bachelor's Degree Number

Under 25 15.4 13

25 to 29 21.0 62

30 to 34 25.0 100

35 to 39 32.6 95

40 to 44 38.1 84

45 to 49 38.3 60

50 plus 26.2 42

TOTAL 30.0 456

Table 5.4

College Degree by Experience Category

Percentage with

Experience Bachelor's

Category Degree Number

Less than 4 22.2 81

5 to 9 25.0 100

10 to 14 31.2 109

15 to 19 41.8 79

20 plus 31.0 87

TOTAL 30.0 456

most prevalent prior experience in the criminal justice system, and should be considered as part of any peace officer career path program.

Experience with another law enforcement agency as a peace officer was relatively rare with only 17.9 percent. This indicates that lateral mobility between agencies is severely limited among the sample. Since 91 percent of the sample was from civil service agencies, they are restricted by law from lateral movements between agencies. If an officer switches agencies, he has to take that agency's written examination, go through in some cases that department's basic training program, and begin at the entry salary level. This lack of mobility is not present in most professions in this country. Most professionals are relatively free to change employers moving between locations of their choice based upon their transferable skills.

With specialized assignments, as seen in Table 4.14, patrol was the specialty that 88.1 percent had spent at least one year. Other specialties specifically identified by frequency were:

1. criminal investigation,

2. detention,

3. field training officer,

4. administration,

5. training,

6. emergency communications,

7. criminal warrants,

8. juvenile officer,

9. crime prevention,

10. research and planning, and

11. civil warrants.

Another category of experience was labeled "other" which includes such work areas as, drugs, vice, and tactical. It was the fourth highest overall, if included on the list. The frequency of these job assignments being performed by officers is one indication of areas that need more attention in terms of training. Patrol and the first six from the above list should also be among the first areas developed for career path certification by TCLEOSE.

The number of individuals that are at higher than officer rank is surprisingly high at 45 percent. Some might argue that the rank of corporal is not a true supervisory rank. It is an indication of departments trying to reward officers in the only way the system allows.

Pay in civil service cities is limited by job classification, plus any incentive pays used in some departments for college, certification, field training officer, and so forth. A better system would be some sort of merit pay for performance. As many have noted this is extremely difficult in the field of law enforcement (Hirsch, Northrop, & Schmidt, 1986; Campbell 1989; and Campbell 1992). Another alternative that should be pursued is the development of career paths, along with specialized pay for career development activities along with accompanying certifications.

The trend in other fields is clearly away from multiple layers of hierarchy along the paramilitary organizational chart. This trend will come to law enforcement. There needs to be alternative routes for career development besides promotion up the organizational ladder. Those alternative programs call for pay the knowledge and skills that contribute to organizational performance (Lawler & Ledford, 1985; Lawler, 1986; Ziskin, 1986; Cundiff, 1986; Feuer, 1986; & Feuer, 1987). An effective career path program could lead the development of law enforcement officers' careers in strategic directions.

From looking at the salary figures, clearly substantial gains have been made in law enforcement. The average monthly salary was $2706. This can be attributed mostly to the raising of the training and education requirements and of the profession as a whole. The professionalism that exists today makes the public more willing to raise the salaries for officers. The average gain in salary from the beginning of their careers is $1295. Other studies have shown that law enforcement officers out earn other degree holders, such as biologists, journalists, psychology majors, teachers, and nurses (Carter, Sapp, & Stephens, 1989 p. 23).

The salary is high enough now that the number of applications for each position is somewhat unmanageable with hundreds of people applying for vacancies. To manage this process, agencies use written tests to screen the applicants. Ninety-six percent of the peace officers in this survey work for agencies that use a written entrance examination. While this process makes it easier on the agency, it is difficult for applicants to know what it takes to prepare for the test.

If one does not do well at one agency, he can go to another agency and take the same or similar test until he finds an agency with a more limited number of applicants, or he could just give up. Some individuals become test wise through this process, especially when agencies use the same screening instrument. Minority applicants are more likely to give up in this type process because of a history of lack of success.

These tests have an adverse impact upon minorities. There are several advantages for using an educational standard over a test standard. Carter, Sapp, and Stephens (1989) set out 18 reasons why the entry standard should be a college degree (See pages 61-64 in Chapter Two). In summary, let me state the following reasons for setting a college standard for entry:

1. contributes to professionalism in the field,

2. encourages university connections with agencies,

3. still assures that basic learning skills, such as, reading and writing are present,

4. helps develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills,

5. provides a common cultural background that emphasizes the acceptance of diversity and individual differences,

6. tells applicants specifically what they must do to prepare themselves for the field,

7. reduces the number of applicants to a manageable level of serious candidates who are interested in a professional career,

8. allows for a more job related selection system by allowing more factors to be considered, besides performance on a written examination, and

9. reduces adverse impact upon minorities.

While this last item, may raise objections with some research by many shows that the minorities within the policing profession currently are as well or better educated than their anglo brethren (Carter, Sapp, & Stephens, 1988; Carter, Sapp, & Stephens, 1989; Campbell, 1989; Carter, Sapp, & Stephens, 1990; Carter & Sapp, 1992, and Campbell 1992). This study finds that 42.9 percent of the African-American officers have a bachelors degree compared to 30.2 percent for Anglo-American officers and 23.8 percent for Hispanic-American officers (See Figure 5.1).

Legal decisions, such as Davis v. Dallas provide strong support for the notion of looking at law enforcement like a profession rather than craft. The Fifth Circuit held that because of "the high degree of public risk and responsibility" and "because of the professional nature of the job" that "empirical evidence is not required to validate the job relatedness of the educational requirement, although validation is still required." This study does provide some empirical evidence that helps to validate the decision to create higher education requirements for entry into the profession.

In the following sections, I will present interpretations and explanations of the data, so that data becomes information. Information is useful in decision-making, whereas data has no meaning outside the context in which it exists.

Insert Figure 5.1

Hypothesis number one states that peace officers who have more hours of college will score higher on professionalism inventories. Hypothesis number thirteen states that peace officers who have more hours of inservice training will have a higher score on professionalism inventories.

As can be seen in Table 5.1 which displays a summation of the results from Table 4.22 and Table 4.36 which displays the results on the professionalism constructs as they relate to higher education and inservice training, there is no apparent impact. There is such a high degree of consensus on these items and constructs that the concepts of professionalism have been internalized by nearly all members of the profession. These concepts of service, regulation, calling referent, autonomy, and alienation could have been learned through either entry training or college or just absorbed in the organizational subculture.

Policing as measured on these constructs is made up of professionals. This is consistent with the conclusions reached by Crank (1990). He determined that police officers were more similar to professionals than craftsmen as measured by the same professionalism instrument used here plus a craftsmanship instrument that he developed.

Hypothesis number two states that peace officers who have more hours of college will be promoted more frequently. The raw data as reported in Chapter Four Table 4.23 indicates that level of college does have an impact upon number of promotions. This is consistent with the findings of Cohen and Chaiken (1973) and Enter (1986).

It is noteworthy in Table 4.23 that the mean number of promotions for zero hours of college is higher than for those with one to 59 hours, but lower than for those over 60 hours and those over 120 hours and for the sample mean. The overall analysis of variance test found a significant difference based upon educational level. It would seem that 60 hours is a threshold point beyond which individuals are differentiated. As can be seen in Table 4.24 in which the college level is collapsed into three levels 59 hours or below, 60 to 119, and above 120, the impact looks more linear

It may be that those who just take a few hours of college and then drop out before this threshold point do so because they were not obtaining something of value based upon whatever motivated them to seek college. The main motivators as described in Chapter Four were job skills, enjoyment of learning, and TCLEOSE certification which in many cases is related to certification pay.

Spilerman and Lunde (1991) argue that employers do not reward credentials, per se, but productivity. They found that "employers reward schooling to the extent it is relevant to job performance (p. 715)." It is clear that in law enforcement at this time that credentialing does not intervene in the promotional process with only 8.9 percent of the officers working for departments that have educational criteria for promotion.

Hypothesis number three states that peace officers who have more hours of college will have higher rank. This hypothesis was confirmed as shown in Table 4.26. The analysis of variance test found a significant difference based upon amount of college with rank. This is consistent with the findings of Cohen and Chaiken (1973) and Enter (1986). Again as in hypothesis two, there was a drop off in rank for the 1 to 59 hour group. This adds evidence to the threshold explanation discussed above.

As can be seen in Table 4.25, over 45 percent of the sergeants had a four year degree while the level for corporals was 31 percent and for officers 21 percent. There is, however, a large group of Sergeants--18.9 percent--who have no college which is the highest percentage for any rank at zero hours. It may be wise in setting educational standards in moving up the ranks to set a higher college requirement for those above the rank of sergeant. This approach seems to be one that has worked for the military.

Hypothesis number four states that peace officers who have more hours of college will have more years of experience in a supervisory capacity. The years of supervisory experience was significantly different based upon educational level. Table 4.27 displays the results and level of significance as .001. These results are additional confirmation of the impact of education on the career advancement of peace officers discussed above under interpretations of hypotheses three and four. The same threshold impact for sixty hours holds here also.

Hypothesis number five states that peace officers with a higher grade point average (GPA) will receive more promotions. This hypothesis takes into account the quality of the learning from college. GPA indicates the level of mastery of the material. Table 4.28 displays the results which indicates that as GPA goes up so do the number of promotions.

It follows if the amount of college has an effect upon career advancement in law enforcement then the quality of the learning should also have an impact within those who have college. It is also consistent with the promotional systems in use in these departments that rely on written examinations. The primary means for obtaining a higher GPA. is being skilled at taking written tests. Officers who are interested in promotion then should not only return to college for the hours, but they should also work as diligently as they can in learning from the educational process.

Hypothesis number six states that peace officers with a higher grade point average will have a higher rank. Table 4.29 displays the increase rank that accompanies a higher GPA. This indicates that the more learning that occurred in college the higher the rank. It should not be surprising that those that are more effective learners move up to higher ranks.

As stated previously, most of the agencies involved here have no policy that gives preference for promotion based either on the amount of higher education or the success in college as indicated by GPA. It follows then that higher educational learning has a positive impact upon one's ability to rise in the ranks.

Hypothesis number seven states that peace officers with a higher grade point average will have a higher current salary. Table 4.30 shows that this hypothesis is correct by its finding of a higher current salary accompanying a higher grade point average.

This result is not consistent with the meta-analysis done by Bretz (1989). Bretz found that current salary was not affected by GPA in studies in the fields of business, teaching, engineering, medicine, science and miscellaneous. Most variation in law enforcement salaries is related to rank, so in view of the findings under hypothesis number six, this finding should not be surprising.

Hypothesis eight states that peace officers with a higher grade point average (GPA) will have had a greater gain in their salary. Table 4.31 shows that this hypothesis is supported. Since most salary gains in law enforcement are through promotions, this should not be a big surprise considering the previous three hypotheses.

Bretz (1989) found that salary gain was not affected by educational level although there was some slight effect on starting salary. Bretz's meta-analysis was done on studies done between 1917 and 1983 among a diverse group of occupations: business, teaching, engineering, science, and so forth. The finding of a higher entry salary on his part works against finding a higher gain through restriction of range. In law enforcement within each agency, there is no different starting salary in most cases.

The ninth hypothesis states that peace officers with a higher grade point average will have more years of specialized experience. Table 4.32 demonstrates that although there is some upward trend with years of specialized experience along with GPA, once total years of experience is controlled for through the covariance technique, the differences are not statistically significant.

It should be noted that selection into these specialized assignments is entirely discretionary in most cases with little formal selection process. Many times, it is the result of some sort of regular rotation, a reward for longevity, or a change of pace for someone burned out in their current assignment. In addition, officers who get into specialties who are not promoted are more likely to stay there. Promotion usually involves something in the patrol division in most departments.

Peace officers who have more hours of college will be more likely to have worked in a specialized career assignment. Table 4.33 shows that level of college does have a significant impact upon the years of specialized experience.

This impact is less significant than previous ones reported with a significance level of .036. It is also a different result from the previous hypothesis on GPA. It must be remembered that this test includes those who do not have any college hours, where as, the one on GPA only included those with some college and a GPA. The number tested for hypothesis nine was 374 while the number for hypothesis ten was 449.

There are three alternative explanations for this phenomenon. First, the impact of college on career specialization is there, but not as strong as in the areas of promotions, rank, and years of supervisory experience, so this limited impact plus the added number in the years of college test resulted in a finding of significance while the GPA test did not. A second explanation is that the added non college group had enough fewer years experience in career specialization that the tests were significant. A third explanation is that this hypothesis used only three groups as opposed to the GPA hypothesis using four groups which reduced the degrees of freedom resulting in a larger F. score. Probably, all three of the explanations contribute to the different outcomes on these hypotheses.

Hypothesis number eleven states that peace officers who have more hours of college will make higher salaries. Table 4.34 shows that as level of college increases current salary rises.

The difference between the mean monthly salary of $2561 for those with less than 60 hours and $2957 for those with a bachelor's degree is $396 per month or $4752 per year. Clearly officers who want to make a higher salary should attend college and should strive to do well in college. In addition, if money is not a primary motivator, it can be inferred that they are being rewarded for making a greater contribution to their department and communities.

While a complete utility analysis is beyond the scope of this study, it is clear that there is clear financial utility in a college education for peace officers. The following discussion is a simple example of a utility analysis that demonstrates the potential impact of changing the criteria for peace officers in Texas. As shown in Table 4.34, college graduates make $396 more per month than high school graduates, and $268 more per month than associate degree level peace officers. This calculates respectively into a $4752 or $3216 per year advantage. Assuming these officers have only as much utility as they are paid for, which is a conservative approach, we can calculate the utility statewide by calculating the same rate of gain for the 70 percent who are not degreed. Extrapolating from this sample to the Statewide population with 47 percent having less than an associate degree level and 23 percent between the associate degree level and the bachelor's degree level. The calculations would look like this:

Numbers of this magnitude show the potential for major gains by the State of Texas for policy changes regarding educational standards. It should indicate to local agencies that there is value in making policy changes to attract and keep the most qualified and skilled personnel. There is also strong support for enhancing educational incentive pay programs to make them more effective.

Hypothesis number twelve states that peace officers who have more hours of college will have made greater gains in their salary from the beginning of their career. As in hypothesis number 11, there is a significant gain in salary associated with level of college. Table 4.35 shows these differences.

Those with more than sixty hours but less than a bachelor's degree are slightly below the mean gain of $1295. The difference between less than 60 hours with a mean gain of $1109 and a bachelor's degree with a mean gain of $1596 is $487 per month or $5844 per year. Peace officers will clearly gain greater salary increases if they have a college degree.

This data is consistent with the findings of researchers in human capital theory. Those findings are that investments in formal education pay better returns on investments for both the individual and society (Leslie & Brinkman, 1988; Woodhall, 1987a; Alexander, 1976; Mincer, 1974; Devereux, et al, 1987; Hinchchliffe, 1987; Psacharopoulos, 1987; and Winkler, 1987). For a more thorough discussion of their findings, see Chapter Two.

Hypothesis fourteen states that peace officers who have more hours of inservice training have received more promotions. Table 4.37 displays the results which indicate that the null hypothesis should be accepted on this with hypothesis. The lowest group and the highest group were considerably different with the lowest group being .48 versus 1.42 for the highest group, however, once years of experience was controlled for the significance level was only .140.

One explanation for this outcome is the relatively egalitarian availability of training to all of law enforcement. The amount of training available to those in law enforcement, although the quality, level, and focus may be different.

Hypothesis fifteen states that peace officers who have more hours of inservice training will have a higher rank. Table 4.38 shows that the level of training is significantly related to the rank of officers. The significance level is .002.

This seemingly contradictory finding when compared to hypothesis number fourteen above can be explained. The number of promotions category also includes those promoted to corporal which is not present in all departments, so a promotion to corporal is counted the same as a promotion to sergeant even though a sergeant is a level higher. The independent variable of rank is a better measure of career progression than number of promotions.

Hypothesis number sixteen states that peace officers who have more training will have more years of experience in a supervisory capacity. Table 4.39 shows that years of supervisory experience rise with level of training. This is consistent with the findings of hypothesis number 15 above.

It is also consistent with an extensive study in the private sector by the Rand Corporation (Lillard and Tan, 1986). They found that amount of training received was associated with organizational rank.

Hypothesis number seventeen states that peace officers who have more hours of inservice training will have more specialized career assignments. Table 4.40 shows that this hypothesis should be rejected as the level of training is not significantly different by years of specialization once total years of experience are controlled. The significance level was .537.

There are a couple of possible explanations for this. Requirements for certain levels of inservice training by policy or administrative law confound the results. Many agencies by policy require 40 hours of training per year regardless of assignment. TCLEOSE requires by Administrative Rule, which has the force of law, that agencies provide 40 hours of training every two years.

Another explanation is that specialized training curriculum has not been developed on a widespread scale. The result is that when one gets a specialized assignment, he must learn on the job or from the incumbent as quickly as possible. In some cases, people getting a new assignment turn down training opportunities because they are too busy learning their new jobs. This suggests either that specific training is not available for their specialized assignment or that the training that is available is not perceived to be very job relevant.

Hypothesis number eighteen states that peace officers who have more hours of inservice training make a higher salary. Table 4.41 shows that as level of training goes up, so does the salary.

The differences are not large, and when one controls for years of experience related to both salary and amount of training, the significance level is .037 that is less than the .05 level. Probably because law enforcement appears to be more egalitarian in its dispersal of training hours than other professions (Lillard & Tan, 1986).

As discussed above concerning hypothesis number eleven, dealing with the financial utility of a college degree, a utility analysis of the impact of training on peace officers is beyond the scope of this study. The utility of training does not appear to be as great as a college degree, probably because of the fact that nearly everyone gets a fairly equal level of training.

Hypothesis number nineteen states that peace officers who have more hours of inservice training have made greater gains in their salary from the beginning of their career. Table 4.42 displays an analysis of variance that shows a significance level of .063 which is greater than the required .05. The acceptance of the null hypothesis on this item appears to be in conflict with hypothesis eighteen.

This can be explained by remembering that the relationship in hypothesis 18 was not strong, and so a slight change in this seemingly parallel hypothesis could give a different outcome. The variation on this hypothesis is that the number of respondents has dropped from 357 to 309. It is probably enough of a shift to make a .037 significance level grow to .063.

Hypothesis number twenty states that peace officers who have more hours of college will have received more hours of inservice training. Table 4.43 shows the level of training is not significantly related to whether one has a college degree or not. The null hypothesis is supported.

This result is contrary to what has been reported in the literature for other fields. Lillard and Tan (1986) in a large study for the U.S. Department of Labor found that as the level of education rose, so did amount of training received. They concluded that both forms of development were complementary. Alexander (1976) and Carnevale and Goldstein (1983) also found a disproportionate share of the training went to better educated workers.

It indicates that law enforcement is a more egalitarian endeavor in which it is recognized that the performance by all members of the organization are important to organizational success. It may also be related to the fact that law enforcement's promoting from within ensures that those at the highest ranks have served at the lower ranks, and are therefore more sensitive to the needs of the lower ranks.

Another contributing factor has been the plethora of law suits filed against law enforcement organizations because of the actions of officers at all ranks. Training attempts to serve another function in law enforcement to a greater extent than other types of business, that function is control. Law enforcement officers for the most part work relatively independently of their supervisors. This encourages training in an attempt to shape people's behavior. Supervisors and managers can be held to be liable for the acts of their subordinates under the legal theory of failure to train (Carter & Sapp, 1989).

Another recent factor has been the mandates for forty hours of training either every year or every two years depending on the source of the mandates. The Texas Commission on Law Enforcement Officer Standards and Education mandates that the agency shall provide 40 hours on training every two years while the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals Standard 16.5 (1973, p. 404) requires 40 hours every year. These mandates are without regard to rank or background.

Hypothesis number twenty-one states that peace officers who work for a department with an educational incentive plan will have more hours of college. As Table 4.44 shows the incentive pay scheme as it is presently constituted is not having the desired effect. Those officers in agencies without an incentive pay plan have the same number of college hours as those without.

The average incentive pay for the departments in this sample was $121 per month for a bachelor's degree. This amounts to 4.5 percent of the mean salary for the sample. The National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals issued in 1973 Standard 15.2 which provided for educational incentive pay of 2.5 percent for every 30 hours of college work. This 2.5 percent per 30 hours amounts to 10% for a degree. The officer is left with the following choices: he can work overtime for 8 hours per week at time and a half pay and get a 30 percent increase in pay or he can go to school for a minimum of four years and then get a 4.5 percent raise.

It is clear that college incentive pay should be raised to comply with the 1973 standard. It is not effective at the current levels. By setting incentive pay based upon percentage of pay, it could continue to be effective over time by keeping up with the inflation factor.

Hypothesis number twenty-two states that peace officers who work for a department with the TCLEOSE Certification incentive plan will have more hours of college. Table 4.45 shows that the Certification pay plan also does not support the notion to raise college attendance.

The TCLEOSE Certification plan does not have an impact, in part, because of the competing incentives of overtime and off-duty salary supplements discussed above. Another TCLEOSE rule actually discourages college attendance by mandating forty hours of inservice training every two years, but not counting college attendance toward compliance with that standard. This places college attendance at a disadvantage in terms of career development activities. Training is usually attended during on-duty time and paid for by the department.

It should also be noted that 57.7 percent of the individuals in the sample have already achieved advanced certification and 80.8 percent have achieved intermediate certification (See Table 4.9). Once such a certification is achieved, it has no motivational value.

Hypothesis number twenty-three states that peace officers who work for a department with a TCLEOSE Certification incentive plan will have more hours of training. Table 4.46 shows that the level of training is higher in those departments with TCLEOSE Certification pay programs.

The reasons that this incentive program works on training is not entirely clear. It could be that training takes less effort on the part of the participant in terms of cash outlay and personal time. The level of inservice participation in training has continued to be pushed by training academies both departmental and regional while colleges focus more on the education of pre-service individuals. TCLEOSE standards for inservice training have been added for training requiring 40 hours every two years. TCLEOSE has no standards requiring college.

In this section, I will make specific recommendations for both future research and for policy makers. This will be divided into two separate sections: future research and policy.

In this section, I will make recommendations about areas needing further research. All the recommended research areas are oriented towards applied research.

1. Further research is needed using utility analysis to assess the impact of human resource management activities.

2. Further research is needed using cost-benefit analysis to assess the impact of human resource development activities.

3. As policy changes are made in human resources practices research is needed to assess their impact.

4. The development of an effective instrument to assess the professionalism of members of an occupational group, especially peace officers should be developed.

5. Comparative studies between different occupations and professions should be undertaken to provide a larger framework to place law enforcement.

6. Future research should focus on more effective methods for doing needs assessments and follow up evaluation of any training designed to meet those needs.

7. Future research should examine the impacts upon officers in smaller agencies to see if these findings are replicated in those settings.

8. Future research should develop multivariate models for assessing the impact of human resource development activities upon peace officers. This is a very complex process which needs additional assessments.

1. A definite amount of college education should be required for entry into the profession. The standard should be a bachelor's degree. The effective date for a Statewide mandate should be the year 2004. In the transition the following logical interim standards should be set to facilitate the smooth transition to the new standard. The following three step process should be adopted by State statute or TCLEOSE Rule:

• Effective January 1, 1995, the minimum standard should be 60 hours of college.

• Effective January 1, 1999, the minimum standard should be 90 hours of college.

• Effective January 1, 2004, the minimum standard should be a bachelor's degree.

Departments should be encouraged to set higher standards or move to the bachelor's standard faster if local conditions permit. Currently licensed personnel should be able to retain their license throughout their careers.

Fears about adverse impact appear to have little foundation. Minorities in the sample and in law enforcement have comparable levels of college with the exception of Hispanics (Carter, Stephens, & Sapp, 1988 & 1989; Carter & Sapp, 1990a & 1990b; Campbell, 1989; and Campbell, 1992). College standards would have less adverse impact than the current system of written entry testing. The following recommendation should make college more accessible for people wanting to enter the profession or be promoted within the profession.

2. The State of Texas should create a program similar to the Law Enforcement Education Program (LEEP) which the federal government used in the 1970s with such great impact on the educational levels of law enforcement. The Texas legislature passed such a bill in 1989, but was vetoed by the governor. This plan must be available for incumbent officers, as well as, pre-service individuals.

3. Law enforcement needs to adopt the model for its human resource activities from the professions rather than the trades. This means using qualitative studies for job analysis and validation of job requirements and educational and training needs. The legal, medical, nursing, and teaching professions do not set their standards based upon what was acceptable in the past. Law enforcement has stagnated on the high school requirement since the 1960s and before. Our society and the nature of the job are evolving over time.

As mentioned in Chapter Two, if medicine had kept it's 1910 standard, a doctor today would not have to be a high school graduate. We cannot accept standard setting that always uses the rear view mirror. The nursing profession has moved away from the hospital trained registered nurse to a development program centered in the community colleges and universities. One can be a licensed registered nurse at the Associate degree level or the bachelor degree level. The distinction is made, in terms of promotional ability on a local basis, considering the local applicant pool.

4. The dualistic nature of human resource development activities in law enforcement should be reduced through more cooperation between colleges and law enforcement training academies. Contractual agreements between academies and colleges should be encouraged immediately, and, perhaps, required by the year 2000. College education needs to become more practical and training academies need to become developmentally based.

The gap is not that great if we are willing to learn from each other. The Minnesota Model should be explored as a possibility for Texas (Carter, Stephens, & Sapp, 1989) Another model to look at is the nursing model mentioned above, which has different levels of nursing: licensed vocational nurse, two-year degree R.N., and baccalaureate R.N.

J.R. Kidd has been quoted by Stephen Matthews as stating, "Theory without practice is empty, and practice without theory is blind." Matthews goes on to paraphrase this statement, "Education without training is empty; training without education is blind." Professional development depends upon a cooperative system that balances the practical and the theoretical parts of learning into a congruent package.

As recommended elsewhere (Carter, Sapp, & Stephens, 1989) institutions of higher education should update their curriculum to make it more consistent with the evolving needs of policing. Their should be more on-going dialogue between universities and law enforcement.

5. The full-time instructional staff at police academies should be required to be college graduates. Instructors should be models for other officers to emulate.

6. TCLEOSE should amend its rule concerning the requirement of 40 hours inservice every two years to include college attendance as one way to meet the standard. This would encourage college attendance.

7. If the change recommended in number is approved, TCLEOSE should amend its mandatory continuing education rule to require 40 hours per year. This requirement should be placed upon the individual officer, as well as the department, and should be based upon some sort of localized and individualized needs assessment.

8. TCLEOSE should develop more career specific curriculum to match career specializations. These courses should also be adopted or incorporated into the higher education curriculum. TCLEOSE should encourage colleges to adopt and incorporate relevant job related curriculum into their course offerings. This will encourage participation in the higher education system and will encourage and broaden educational attainment into training courses.

9. TCLEOSE should develop a system of career development and certification that makes a distinction between degreed and non-degreed licensees. This will encourage the participation by incumbents in the higher education system which will speed up the acceptance of law enforcement as a profession. Career path levels should have specific college requirements. The top level should require a college degree with no substitutions for training hours or experience.

10. Agencies should adopt standards for promotion that require the attainment of certain levels of college. The following scheme is recommended, but could be modified as local conditions warrant.

Sergeants should be required to have 60 hours. Since the median level of college hours currently is 74 hours and the number of incumbents at the sergeant or higher level is 29.8 percent, we should have sufficient applicants for promotion.

Lieutenants and above should be required to have a bachelor's degree. This has been and is the current requirement for the U.S. military which has been quite successful in attracting and promoting minorities while improving their profession. Since 30 percent of the sample has a bachelor's degree, and 9.9 percent of them are the lieutenant or higher rank, we should have sufficient applicants for promotion. Once such standards are set, we will see large increases in participation in college programs.

11. Civil service laws should be altered to allow for promotion based upon a combination of experience, educational attainments, written tests, performance, interviews, and assessment centers, rather than written tests only. This allows for a better assessment of a person's knowledge, skills, and abilities than using only a written test with rank ordering of the results. It also is more inclusive in allowing minorities to go through a preparation and development process for advancement.

12. Civil service laws should be altered to allow for lateral transfers between agencies without having to start all over at a different rank. Mobility and transferability of knowledge, abilities, and skills is one of the hallmarks of a professional. Currently officers are virtually trapped into continuing to work in situations with which they may not be happy. They lose retirement, seniority, and rank when they switch agencies. These changes could be caused by a spouse being transferred, family problems, conflicts with supervisors or co-workers, or desire to relocate for other personal reasons. Just as free agency has come to the sports arena, the law should allow for flexible career choices for peace officers.

13. Departments should increase their college incentive pay to the 1973 recommendations of the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals of 10 percent of salary. As discussed earlier, this will be a more effective incentive for career development.

In Chapter One, I discussed a paradigm shift in policing. The field needs problem-solving police officers who have developed the capacity to think critically through situations they are thrust into. As Goldstein (1990) has noted, we need to raise the threshold on what we consider to be a professional. Futurist William Tafoya (1986) using the Delphi technique made the following projections about career development standards and milestones for law enforcement.

• In 2025, formal education will become the standard for entry and advancement in more than 70 percent of all police agencies.

• In 2050, law enforcement will achieve professional status.

Those dates seem outrageously far off into the future. The year 2050 is also the date in which it is predicted that we will be able to medically treat violence-proneness with bio-chemical and genetic means.

Houle's (1981) view that the concept of professionalizing involves the evolution of an occupation seems appropriate here. We must move beyond stagnation and the status quo. It is time to take bigger steps.

Law enforcement needs to make decisions and adjust its course if it is to move closer to attaining professional status. It will only come after taking bold actions that involve a certain amount of risk taking. Law enforcement leaders and political leaders should assert the needed developments for the profession to move forward into the Third Millennium.

This section contains the comments added onto the pilot surveys by persons completing them.

Comments:

#6-47. I had to disagree with a lot of these as they were blanket statements.

#9. Education does not create compassion.

#15. The reverse is more true.

#23. Unclear?

#28. By the officers, supervisor, peers or public?

#29. Other officers in the same dept. - or other agencies?

#29. Not sure how you mean this.

#33. At first.

#34. This can be confusing if there is not a "high level of idealism."

#34. Wording a problem - try to judge if idealism is present or at what level? (Many officers or a few)

#40. ?Someone tells me what is expected not how.

#48 to 56. This range seems awfully large too many choices.

#48. If you don't take training, you lose pay.

#53. Already have it.

#60. I really don't have a good idea.

#86. Should "reserves" be left out?

#88. Difficult to answer - My dept. is only 3 people. I am chief but also do patrol & full range of duties.

#105. Civilian? with L.E. Experience need equivalent check if this info is needed.

#117 & 118. Not low enough if you go back to the beginning.

#117. My beginning salary was $700.

Agreed, it is a little too long. (35)

March 1993

Dear Texas Peace Officer:

We believe that you have ideas, experiences, and opinions that could help improve the career development systems of Texas peace officers. This survey is part of an ongoing effort by the Texas Commission on Law Enforcement Officer Standards and Education to develop systems of human resource development that meet the needs of Texas peace officers.

One of the first steps in understanding our needs is to have a clear understanding and description of the current status of Texas peace officers in their career development. We need responses from a representative sample of Texas peace officers to obtain a complete picture of our current situation. You were randomly selected to represent other peace officers. We took one officer out of every 32 from your department.

We hope you will take a few minutes to answer the questions on the following pages so that we can accurately determine our present situation and future needs. Note that the survey is anonymous and voluntary, so please feel free to express your honest opinions. There are no right or wrong answers to the questions that ask your opinions.

When you have completed the questionnaire, please return it to your agency's designated representative. The deadline for returning this questionnaire is one week after you received it. Your participation is extremely important for the results to be valid. We certainly would appreciate your being part of this important study. Thank you!

Sincerely,

Craig H. Campbell,

Doctoral Candidate at University of Texas

and TCLEOSE Employee

Phone: (512) 406-3631

2. My fellow police officers pretty well know how we all do in our work. _____

3. Other professions are actually more vital to society than mine. _____

4. I think that my profession, more than any other, is essential for society. _____

5. The importance of being a police officer is sometimes over stressed. _____

6. There is really no way to judge fellow officers' competence. _____

7. There is not much opportunity to judge how another police officer does his/her work. _____

8. A problem in this profession is that no one knows what other officers are doing. _____

9. My fellow officers have a pretty good idea about each other's competence. _____

10. Most police officers would remain in the profession even if their incomes were reduced._____

11 There are very few police officers who don't really believe in their work. _____

12. People in this profession have a real "calling" to their work. _____

13. It is encouraging to see the high level of idealism that is maintained by the police

officers in this department. _____

14. The dedication of police officers in this profession is most gratifying. _____

15. Professional associations (such as the International Association of Chiefs of Police)

don't do much for the average police officer. _____

16. I frequently read a police journal (e.g., Police Chief, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, etc.)_____

17. I regularly attend professional meetings at the local level. _____

18. Although I would like to, I really don't read police journals too often. _____

19. I make my own decisions regarding what is to be done in my work. _____

20. I don't have much opportunity to exercise my own judgment. _____

21. I have a lot to say in decisions which affect my work. _____

22. My supervisor leaves it up to me to decide how to go about doing my job. _____

23. On the job I make a lot of decisions on my own. _____

24. I very much like the type of work that I am doing. _____

25. I really don't feel a sense of pride or accomplishment as a result of the type of work

that I do. _____

26. My job gives me a chance to do the things that I do best. _____

27. Incentive pay . . . . . . _____

28. Chance for advancement . . . . . _____

29. Obtaining new skills to better perform my work . . . _____

30. Enjoyment of learning . . . . . _____

31. Chance to get away from the job and to socialize with other officers _____

32. To accumulate hours toward my intermediate or advanced certificate _____

33. Compliance with minimum departmental standards . . _____

34. Agency encouragement through work scheduling . . _____

35. Requirement to obtain 40 hours of inservice training every two years. _____

36. How many years ago was basic training was received. ______.

37. Number of hours in basic training ______

38. Type of Basic Academy _____

(1) State, (2) Regional, (3) College, (4) County, (4) Municipal, (5) Other, (6) Did not attend basic.

39. Number of hours of in-service training since basic training: _____

(0) 0, (1) 1-100, (2) 101-200, (3) 201-300, (4) 301-400 (5) 401-500, (6) 501-600, (7) 601-700, (8) 701+

40. Please estimate the percentage of inservice training that you have received that was sought out by you as opposed to departmentally mandated: _____

YES NO YES NO

41. (0) (1) Intermediate 45. (0) (1) Investigative Hypnosis

42. (0) (1) Advanced 46. (0) (1) Jail license

43. (0) (1) Instructor 47. (0) (1) Graduate Management Institute

44. (0) (1) Crime Prevention

48. Number of years since last attended: _____

(1) Currently attending, (2) one year ago, (3) 2 to 5 years ago (4) 6 to 10 years ago (5) 11+ years ago

49. Total hours of college: _______

50. What percentage of your college work was taken prior to becoming a peace officer._______

(0) 0% (1) 10% (2) 20% (3) 30% (4) 40% (5) 50% (6) 60 % (7) 70% (8) 80% (9) 90% or more

51. Grade Point Average: _______

(1) 0.0 to 1.0 (2) 1.1 to 1.9 (3) 2.0 to 2.49

(4) 2.5 to 2.99 (5) 3.0 to 3.49 (6) 3.5 to 4.0

WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING MOTIVATED YOU IN OBTAINING ADDITIONAL HOURS OF COLLEGE EDUCATION

53. Chance for advancement . . . . . _______

54. Obtaining new skills to better perform my work . . . _______

55. Enjoyment of learning . . . . . _______

56. Chance to get away from the job . . . . _______

57. To accumulate hours toward my intermediate or advanced certificate _______

58. To socialize with students . . . . . _______

59. To obtain knowledge and skills that will allow me to leave law enforcement _______

60. Agency encouragement through work scheduling . . _______

61. Agency tuition reimbursement program . . . _______

62. Veteran's benefits . . . . . . _______

63. Law Enforcement Assistance Administration money (LEEP) . _______

64. Approximate percent of credits in criminal justice.

(0) 0% (1) 10% (2) 20% (3) 30% (4) 40% (5) 50 % (6) 60% (7) 70% (8) 80% or more

65. Approximate percent of credits in the liberal arts (for example, English, humanities, philosophy, languages, etc.).

(0) 0% (1) 10% (2) 20% (3) 30% (4) 40% (5) 50 % (6) 60% (7) 70% (8) 80% or more

66. Approximate percent of credits in the social sciences (for example, sociology, psychology, political science, anthropology, economics, etc.).

(0) 0% (1) 10% (2) 20% (3) 30% (4) 40% (5) 50 % (6) 60% (7) 70% (8) 80% or more

67. Approximate percent of credits in the social professions (for example, social work, education,

business administration, etc.).

(0) 0% (1) 10% (2) 20% (3) 30% (4) 40% (5) 50 % (6) 60% (7) 70% (8) 80% or more

68. Approximate percent of credits in the natural sciences (for example, chemistry, mathematics, statistics, agriculture, physical sciences, etc.).

(0) 0% (1) 10% (2) 20% (3) 30% (4) 40% (5) 50 % (6) 60% (7) 70% (8) 80% or more

69. Major: _______

(1) Criminal Justice, (2) Liberal Arts, (3) Social Sciences, (4) Social Professions, (5) Natural Sciences

70. Which of the following fields in criminal justice, if any, did you work in the most for a criminal justice agency prior to becoming a peace officer.

_____(1) None

_____(2) Clerical

_____(3) Dispatcher(Emergency Communicator)

_____(4) City Detention Officer, State, Federal, or County Corrections Officer (County Jailer)

_____(5) Reserve Law Enforcement Officer

_____(6) Probation or Parole Officer

_____(7) Other.

71. How many hours a week do you work an off-duty security type job?

_____(1) zero

_____(2) less than 8

_____(3) 9-16

_____(4) 17-24

_____(5) 25 or more

72. How many years experience do you have as a reserve law enforcement officer? _____

73. How many agencies have you worked as a full-time paid regular peace officer? _____

74. Patrol _____

75. Detention _____

76. Emergency communications (dispatch) _____

77. Administration _____

78. Criminal Investigation _____

79. Civil Warrants _____

80. Criminal Warrants _____

81. Field training officer _____

82. Training _____

83. Crime prevention _____

84. Research, planning, crime analysis _____

85. Juvenile officer _____

86. Other _____

87. Total years of experience as a peace officer _____

88. How many promotions have you received? _____

89. How many demotions have your received? _____

90. What is your current rank or equivalent? _____

(1) Officer, (2) Corporal, (3) Sergeant, (4) Lieutenant, (5) Captain, (6) Major, (7) Deputy or Assistant Chief or Chief Deputy, (8) Constable, (9) Chief, or (0) Sheriff.

91. Gender ___ Male ___ Female

92. Birth Year _____

93. Ethnic Group:

BLACK (African-American) _____

AMERICAN-INDIAN _____

ASIAN-AMERICAN _____

HISPANIC-AMERICAN _____

ANGLO-AMERICAN _____

95. Sergeant (or equivalent) _______

96. Lieutenant (or equivalent) _______

97. Captain (or equivalent) _______

98. Major (or equivalent) _______

99. Deputy Chief (or equivalent) _______

100. Assistant Chief (or equivalent) _______

101. Chief Deputy (or equivalent) _______

102. Constable _______

103. Chief (or equivalent) _______

104. Sheriff _______

105. Total Sup./Management Experience _______

The amount of Monthly Base Salary

106. Beginning salary as an Officer _______

107. Current base salary (not including overtime) _______

Overtime income as a Percentage of base 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% or more

108. Departmental overtime income average (0) (1) (2) (3) (4)

109. Second job income (0) (1) (2) (3) (4)

Comments (Please attach additional pages if needed):

_________________________

at your department who will forward to

Craig Campbell

LEMI/TCLEOSE

1033 La Posada, Suite 130

Austin, Texas 78752

(512) 406-3631

FAX (512) 406-3666

1. Name of Department ________________________________________________________

2. Is the department civil service? (1) Yes (0) No

3. Is a written entry test used for hiring of peace officers? (1) Yes (0) No

4. Does the department require any college for hiring? (1) Yes (0) No

5. Does your department have rotating shifts? (1) Yes (0) No

6. Size of agency (including sworn/non-sworn) (1) 50-199 (2) 200-999 (3) 1000+

7. ___ Written test 11. ___ Supervisory ratings

8. ___ Oral board 12. ___ Educational criteria

9. ___ Interview by supervisor or manager 13. ___ Experience criteria

10. ___ Assessment center 14. ___ Other, please describe

15. Does your department provide incentive pay for college? (1) Yes(0) No

If yes, please describe.

16. Does your department provide incentive pay for TCLEOSE certification? (1) Yes (0) No

If yes, please describe.

17. Does your department provide incentive pay for college tuition? (1) Yes (0) No

If yes, please describe.

18. Does your department reimburse officers for college tuition? (1) Yes (0) No

If yes, please describe.

19. What does your department require for promotion in terms of college?______

(0) None (4) 60 hours

(1) Preference (5) 90 hours

(2) Some college (6) Bachelor's Degree

(3) 30 hours

Additional Comments on the back or seperate sheet.

Name of Person Completing this form . Phone #

February 16, 1993

Dwain T. Pyburn, Chief

Abilene PD

Box 174

Abilene, TX 79604

Dear Chief Pyburn:

As part of TCLEOSE's continuing attempts to improve the delivery of human resource development activities to Texas peace officers, we ask your assistance in a survey to help assess the current level of Texas peace officers. We are doing this in conjunction with the University of Texas and involving all of the major departments in the State.

We ask that you appoint a designee to distribute and collect survey instruments from your officers. We only need to collect five surveys from officers that we have randomly picked in your department. Completion of the survey will take less than 30 minutes. We will tally all of the results and will report them only on a Statewide basis without any department being identified. The survey is anonymous to encourage honest responses. Our only interest is looking at peace officer opinions as a group, and not departments or individual peace officers. We will provide you with the results of the survey.

A synopsis of the study is attached along with a sample survey instrument. You may contact us by phone or simply complete the bottom portion of this letter and return which ever you prefer. An extra copy of this letter is enclosed for your files. If you have questions, please do not hesitate to contact us.

Sincerely,

Fred Toler

Executive Director TCLEOSE

Craig H. Campbell, MA. & M.S.

Doctoral Candidate at the University of Texas and Program Administrator with TCLEOSE

Phone: (512) 406-3631 or (512) 450-0188. FAX (512) 406-3666

Name of Designee ___________________________ Title _______________

Phone Number _______________________

Comments:

1. Do officers who have more hours of college have a different professional orientation or a different career path experience?

2. Do officers who have more hours of in-service training differ in terms of professional orientation or differ in career path experience?

3. What is the relationship between college education and training?

The methodology will use survey data of a sample of peace officers randomly drawn from thirty-seven (37) law enforcement agencies in Texas. Each department will be provided a list of names that have been randomly drawn from their licensed peace officers. The number of peace officers will vary by agency size with approximately one officer drawn for every 32 licensed officers in the department. We will tally all of the results and will report them only on a Statewide basis without any department being identified. The survey is anonymous to encourage honest responses. Our only interest is looking at peace officer opinions as a group, and not departments or individual peace officers.

The study has significance for state law enforcement policy makers in setting human resource standards and in engaging in human resource planning, administrators of law enforcement agencies in setting policies for their agencies, professional associations in determining appropriate practices to advocate to legislators and state agencies, criminal justice educators and trainers may gain useful information about the influence of their activities, and peace officers trying to decide whether to invest in human resource development activities.

Dwayne Pyburn, Chief

Abilene PD

Box 174

Abilene, TX 79604

David M. Kunkle, Chief

Arlington PD

621 W. Division

Arlington, TX 76011

Jerry Neal, Chief

Amarillo PD

609 S. Pierce

Amarillo, TX 79101-2495

Elizabeth Watson, Chief

Austin PD

715 E. 8th

Austin, TX 78701-3397

Tom Scofield, Chief

Beaumont PD

Box 3827

Beaumont, TX 77704

Ralph Lopez, Sheriff

Bexar County S.O.

200 N. Comal

San Antonio, TX 78207-3505

Victor Rodriguez, Chief

Brownsville PD

600 E. Jackson

Brownsville, TX 78520

V.C. Campbell, Chief

Carrollton PD

2025 Jackson RD

Carrollton, TX 75006

Henry Garrett, Chief

Corpus Christi PD

Box 9016

Corpus Christi, TX 78469-9016

Jim Bowles, Sheriff

Dallas County S.O.

133 N. Industrial Blvd.

Dallas, TX 75207-4313

William Rathburn, Chief

Dallas PD

106 S. Harwood, Room 20

Dallas, TX 75201

John Scagno, Chief

El Paso PD

911 N. Raynor

El Paso, TX 79903

Leo Samaniego, Sheriff

El Paso County S.O.

Box 125

El Paso, TX 79941

Thomas R. Windham, Chief

Fort Worth PD

350 Belknap

Fort Worth, TX 76102

Freddie Lee Poor, Chief

Galveston PD

Box 568

Galveston, TX 77553

Joe Max Taylor, Sheriff

Galveston County S.O.

715 19th Street

Galveston, TX 77550

Terry Hensley, Chief

Garland PD

217 N. 5th Street

Garland, TX 75040

Harry Crum, Chief

Grand Prairie PD

801 Conover Dr.

Grand Prairie, TX 75051

Johnny Klevenhagen, Sheriff

Harris County S.O.

1301 Franklin Street

Houston, TX 77002

Sam Nuchia, Chief

Houston PD

61 Riesner, Room 330

Houston, TX 77002

Benny Newman, Chief

Irving PD

Box 152288

Irving, TX 75015-2288

Johnny Upton Chief

Longview PD

Box 1952

Longview, TX 75606

Donald Bridgers, Chief

Lubbock PD

Box 2000

Lubbock, TX 79457

Alex Longoria, Chief

McAllen PD

1501 Pecan Blvd.

McAllen, TX 78501

Richard Czech, Chief

Midland PD

Box 1152

Midland, TX 79702

Joe Corley, Sheriff

Montgomery County S.O.

#1 Criminal Justice Dr.

Conroe, TX 77301

James Jenkins, Chief

Odessa PD

205 N. Grant

Odessa, TX 79761

Floyd Daigle, Chief

Pasadena PD

Box 3209

Pasadena, TX 77501

Bruce Glasscock, Chief

Plano PD

Box 860358

Plano, TX 75086-0358

Russell S. Smith, Chief

San Angelo PD

Box 5020

San Angelo, TX 76902

William O. Gibson, Chief

San Antonio PD

Box 831048

San Antonio, TX 78283-1048

David Williams, Sheriff

Tarrant County S.O.

300 W. Belknap

Fort Worth, TX 76102

Terry Keel, Sheriff

Travis County S.O.

P.O. Box 1748

Austin, TX 78767-1748

Larry Robinson, Chief

Tyler PD

711 W. Ferguson

Tyler, TX 75702

Gilbert Miller, Chief

Waco PD

Box 2570

Waco, TX 76702-2570

Curtis R. Harrelson, Chief

Wichita Falls PD

610 Holliday

Wichita Falls, TX 76301

Sgt. Ron Meyers

Inspections/Planning & Research

Lock Box 31

133 N. Industrial Blvd.

Dallas, TX 75207-4313

(214) 653-2755

Lt. Ken Karr

Training Division

6000 W. Pioneer Parkway

Arlington, TX 76013

(817) 457-8013

Sgt. Robert Scroggs

Odessa P.D.

205 N. Grant

Odessa, TX 79761

Sgt. Ernie Wakefield, Personnel

Midland P.D.

Box 1152

Midland, TX 79702

(915) 685-7141

FAX (915) 685-0536

Ron Harris, Deputy Chief

Abilene P.D.

Box 174

Abilene, TX 79604

(915) 676-6603

Captain Dale Holton

Lubbock P.D.

Box 2000

Lubbock, TX 79457

(806) 767-2960

Sgt. J. M. Baird

Pasadena P.D.

Box 3209

Pasadena, TX 77501

(713) 475-5536

Sgt. Sam Hunnicutt

McAllen P.D.

1501 Pecan Blvd.

McAllen, TX 78501

(210) 631-7111 ext. 361

Sgt. Mark Ferris

Personnel

Irving P.D.

Box 152288

Irving, TX 75015-2288

(214) 721-3513

George Althoff

El Paso P.D.

911 N. Raynor

El Paso, TX 79903

(915) 564-7391

Steve De LaRosa

Waco P.D.

Box 2570

Waco, TX 76702-2570

(817) 750-7513

Robert David

Training

Wichita Falls P.D.

610 Holliday

Wichita Falls, TX 76301

Irma Munoz

El Paso County S. O.

Box 125

El Paso, TX 79941

Bob Butler

Carrollton P.D.

2025 Jackson RD

Carrollton, TX 75006

(214) 466-3297

Terry Green, Coordinator

Planning & Research

Plano P.D.

Box 860358

Plano, TX 75086-0358

Ken Muennink, Deputy Chief

Austin P.D.

715 E. 8th

Austin, TX 78701-3397

Melissa Ownby, Captain

Beaumont P.D.

Box 3827

Beaumont, TX 77704

Larry Simmons, Planner

Grand Prairie P.D.

801 Conover Dr.

Grand Prairie, TX 75051

Sandra Williams, Admin. Sec.

Longview P.D.

Box 1952

Longview, TX 75606

Robert Francis, Asst. Chief

Amarillo P.D.

609 S. Pierce

Amarillo, TX 79101-2495

Marcie Nolan

Assistant to the Sheriff

Harris County S.O.

1301 Franklin Street

Houston, TX 77002

Hank Pope, Chief Deputy

Tarrant County S. O.

300 W. Belknap

Fort Worth, TX 76102-2084

Sandra L. Dworaczyk, Deputy Chief

Director of Staff Development & Training

200 N. Comal

San Antonio, TX 78207-3505

Lt. J.W. Bellar

In-Service Coordinator

Fort Worth P.D.

1000 Calvert

Fort Worth, TX 76107

(817) 871-6500

Lt. Scott Burroughs

Criminal Investigation Division

Travis County S.O.

P.O. Box 1748

Austin, TX 78767-1748

322-4602

Earl Campa

Houston Police Academy

17000 Aldine Westfield Rd.

Houston, TX 77073

(713) 230-2304

Al Petrarca

Brownsville P. D.

600 E. Jackson

Brownsville, TX 78520

Bob Bond, Asst. Chief

Tyler P. D.

711 W. Ferguson

Tyler, TX 75702

Timothy J. Britt

Research and Planning Unit

San Antonio P.D.

P.O. Box 831048

San Antonio, TX 78283-1048

Lt. D. T. Tapley

Garland P.D.

217 N. 5th

Garland, TX 75040

Lewis Walker, Captain

Montgomery County S. O.

#1 Criminal Justice Dr.

Conroe, TX 77301

Sgt. Arnie Garcia

Corpus Christi Police Acad.

4510 Corona

Corpus Christi, TX 78411

(512) 851-8971

Capt. Edward Benavidez

Galveston P.D.

Box 568

Galveston, TX 77553

(409) 766-2239

Lt. Betty Frey-Kerstens

Director of Training

Galveston Co. S.O.

715 19th Street

Galveston, TX 77550

(409) 766-2305

Lt. John Branton

Dallas P.D.

2014 Main St., Room 201

Dallas, TX 75201

(214) 670-5144

Sgt. Joel C. Sanchez

San Angelo P.D.

Box 5020

San Angelo, TX 76902

(915) 657-4463

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 14 3.1

Disagree 61 13.5

Neutral 71 15.7

Agree 268 59.3

Strongly Agree 38 8.4

N=452 (Missing 4) Standard Deviation .934

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 162 35.6

Disagree 189 41.5

Neutral 72 15.8

Agree 25 5.5

Strongly Agree 7 1.5

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation .934

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 12 2.6

Disagree 63 13.8

Neutral 95 20.9

Agree 162 35.6

Strongly Agree 123 27.0

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation 1.089

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 97 21.3

Disagree 198 43.5

Neutral 70 15.4

Agree 76 16.7

Strongly Agree 14 3.1

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation 1.086

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 153 33.6

Disagree 244 53.6

Neutral 22 4.8

Agree 26 5.7

Strongly Agree 10 2.2

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation .895

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 113 24.8

Disagree 257 56.5

Neutral 26 5.7

Agree 52 11.4

Strongly Agree 7 1.5

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation .947

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 48 10.6

Disagree 220 48.5

Neutral 64 14.1

Agree 95 20.9

Strongly Agree 27 5.9

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation 1.105

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 4 0.9

Disagree 38 8.4

Neutral 44 9.7

Agree 316 69.5

Strongly Agree 53 11.6

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation .773

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 72 15.8

Disagree 131 28.8

Neutral 84 15.2

Agree 151 33.2

Strongly Agree 17 3.7

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation 1.169

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 19 4.2

Disagree 75 16.5

Neutral 69 15.2

Agree 251 55.2

Strongly Agree 41 9.0

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation 1.006

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 6 1.3

Disagree 69 15.1

Neutral 145 31.9

Agree 210 46.2

Strongly Agree 25 5.5

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation .856

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 27 5.9

Disagree 92 20.2

Neutral 142 31.2

Agree 164 36.0

Strongly Agree 30 6.6

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation 1.018

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 11 2.4

Disagree 49 10.7

Neutral 101 22.3

Agree 253 55.8

Strongly Agree 39 8.6

N=453 (Missing 3) Standard Deviation .883

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 18 4.0

Disagree 87 19.2

Neutral 126 27.8

Agree 146 32.2

Strongly Agree 76 16.8

N=453 (Missing 3) Standard Deviation 1.094

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 44 9.7

Disagree 137 30.1

Neutral 73 16.0

Agree 156 34.3

Strongly Agree 45 9.9

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation 1.195

17. I regularly attend professional meeting at the local level.

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 75 16.5

Disagree 200 44.0

Neutral 85 18.7

Agree 75 16.5

Strongly Agree 20 4.4

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation 1.084

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 51 11.2

Disagree 162 35.6

Neutral 75 16.5

Agree 154 33.8

Strongly Agree 13 2.9

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation 1.107

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 8 1.8

Disagree 63 13.8

Neutral 87 19.1

Agree 251 55.2

Strongly Agree 46 10.1

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation .911

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 119 26.2

Disagree 261 57.4

Neutral 28 6.2

Agree 39 8.6

Strongly Agree 8 1.8

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation .909

21. I have a lot to say in decisions which affect my work.

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 33 7.3

Disagree 84 18.5

Neutral 87 19.1

Agree 209 45.9

Strongly Agree 42 9.2

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation 1.099

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 7 1.5

Disagree 42 9.2

Neutral 57 12.5

Agree 291 63.8

Strongly Agree 58 12.7

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation .842

23. On the job I make a lot of decisions on my own.

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 4 0.9

Disagree 10 2.2

Neutral 26 5.7

Agree 305 67.2

Strongly Agree 109 24.0

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation .673

24. I very much like the type of work that I am doing.

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 7 1.5

Disagree 10 2.2

Neutral 42 9.2

Agree 208 45.7

Strongly Agree 188 41.3

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation .825

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 187 41.1

Disagree 170 37.4

Neutral 44 9.7

Agree 41 9.0

Strongly Agree 13 2.9

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation 1.061

26. My job gives me a chance to do the things that I do best.

Value Frequency Percent

Strongly disagree 16 3.5

Disagree 50 11.0

Neutral 80 17.6

Agree 212 46.6

Strongly Agree 97 21.3

N=455 (Missing 1) Standard Deviation 1.032

ITEMS 27 TO 36

Motivation Mean Deviation Number

Incentive pay 4.39 2.17 330

Advancement 4.24 2.06 398

Skill for work 5.42 1.52 446

Enjoyment of learning 4.86 1.62 449

Socialization w/ officers 3.012 1.62 424

TCLEOSE Certification 4.52 2.15 428

Minimum Dept. Standard 4.18 2.03 419

Training Scheduling 3.02 1.84 377

TCLEOSE 40 hour requirement 4.43 2.07 424

State 23 5.2

Regional 87 19.6

College 30 6.7

Local(County or City) 295 66.3

Other 7 1.6

No basic 3 0.7

N=445

Missing 11 2.4%

Item 50

PERCENTAGE OF

0 HOURS COLLEGE 62 13.6%

0% PRIOR 60 13.2%

10% PRIOR 28 6.1%

20% PRIOR 13 2.9%

30% PRIOR 16 3.5%

40% PRIOR 14 3.1%

50% PRIOR 18 3.9%

60% PRIOR 17 3.7%

70% PRIOR 16 3.5%

80% PRIOR 18 3.9%

90% OR MORE 194 42.5%

Items 52 to 63

Motivation for College

Motivation Mean Deviation Number

Incentive pay 4.38 2.21 278

Advancement 4.31 2.05 336

Skill for work 5.47 1.46 382

Enjoyment of learning 4.81 1.66 384

Get away from job 2.92 1.74 351

TCLEOSE Certification 4.49 2.16 352

Socialization w/ students 2.74 1.62 354

Knowledge to leave L.E. 2.58 1.95 308

Agency help w/ Scheduling 2.93 1.78 309

Tuition reimbursement 2.96 2.04 238

Veterans benefits 2.93 2.15 147

LEEP assistance 3.16 2.27 163

Item 64 asked for the percentage of coursework in criminal justice. The following Table displays those results.

Percentage of Valid

Course Work Frequency Percent Percent

0% 79 17.3 20.3

10% 49 10.7 12.6

20% 34 7.5 8.7

30% 34 7.5 8.7

40% 54 11.8 13.9

50% 47 10.3 12.1

60% 35 7.7 9.0

70% 16 3.5 4.1

80% or more 41 9.0 10.5

Item 65 asked for the percentage of coursework in the liberal arts. The following Table displays those results.

Percentage of Valid

Course Work Frequency Percent Percent

0% 47 10.3 12.1

10% 103 22.6 26.5

20% 116 25.4 29.8

30% 61 13.4 15.7

40% 29 6.4 7.5

50% 21 4.6 5.4

60% 3 0.7 0.8

70% 4 0.9 1.0

80% or more 5 1.1 1.3

Item 66 asked for the percentage of coursework in the social sciences. The following Table displays those results.

Percentage of Valid

Course Work Frequency Percent Percent

0% 57 12.5 14.7

10% 113 24.8 29.0

20% 122 26.8 31.4

30% 61 13.4 15.7

40% 15 3.3 3.9

50% 12 2.6 3.1

60% 3 0.7 0.8

70% 2 0.4 0.5

80% or more 4 0.9 1.0

Item 67 asked for the percentage of coursework in the social professions. The following Table displays those results.

Percentage of Valid

Course Work Frequency Percent Percent

0% 171 37.8 44.3

10% 106 23.2 27.5

20% 49 10.7 12.7

30% 23 5.0 6.0

40% 13 2.9 3.4

50% 6 1.3 1.6

60% 8 1.8 2.1

70% 3 0.7 0.8

80% or more 7 1.5 1.8

Item 68 asked for the percentage of coursework in the natural sciences. The following Table displays those results.

Percentage of Valid

Course Work Frequency Percent Percent

0% 118 25.9 30.7

10% 179 39.3 46.6

20% 39 8.6 10.2

30% 21 4.6 5.5

40% 8 1.8 2.1

50% 12 2.6 3.1

60% 3 0.7 0.8

70% 2 0.4 0.5

80% or more 2 0.4 0.5

None 200 44.1

Less than 8 88 19.4

9 to 16 35 7.7

17 to 24 17 3.7

25 or more 5 1.1

Arlington P.D.

Austin P.D.

Carrollton P.D.

Bachelor's Degree = $100/month

Corpus Christi P.D.

Fort Worth P.D.

Bachelor's Degree = $120/month

Galveston P.D.

Garland P.D.

Details Not Reported

Grand Prairie P.D.

Harris County S.O.

Irving P.D.

Longview P.D.

Details Not Reported

Lubbock P.D.

McAllen P.D.

Midland P.D.

Odessa P.D.

San Angelo P.D.

San Antonio P.D.

Travis County S.O.

Details Not Reported

Tyler P.D.

Waco P.D.

Abilene P.D.

Amarillo P.D.

Austin P.D.

Beaumont P.D.

Details Not Reported

Brownsville P.D.

Carrolton P.D.

El Paso S.O.

El Paso P.D.

Fort Worth P.D.

Galveston P.D.

Garland P.D.

Advanced Certificate = $ 75/month after topping out as patrol officer (5 years)

Grand Prairie P.D.

Harris County S.O.

Irving P.D.

Longview P.D.

Details Not Reported

McAllen P.D.

Midland P.D.

Odessa P.D.

Pasadena P.D.

Plano P.D.

Details Not Reported

Travis County S.O.

Details Not Reported

Tyler P.D.

Waco P.D.

Wichita Falls P.D.

Avery, R.D. & Faley, R.H. (1988). Fairness in

Niderhoffer, A. (1967). Behind the shield. Anchor Press.

Craig Hudson Campbell was born in Vinita, Oklahoma September 22, 1947. He is the youngest of three children of Carl and Margaret Campbell. He graduated from Vinita High School in 1965, the University of Oklahoma with a B.A. in History in January 1970, the University of Oklahoma with a M.A. in Human Relations in December 1973, and Oklahoma State University with a M.S. in Corrections/Sociology in August 1976.

He has had the following work published:

He has worked in law enforcement and corrections since January 1974, serving as a Chief Deputy for the Travis County Sheriff's Department, Director of Corrections for the Travis County Sheriff's Department, and in community corrections for the Oklahoma Department of Corrections. During this period, he served as an Adjunct Instructor for St. Edwards University. He has worked for the last eleven years in human resource development activities in law enforcement as a management consultant, research specialist, training specialist, program manager, and program administrator for the Texas Commission on Law Enforcement Officer Standards and Education. During this period, he was program administrator for the Law Enforcement Management Institute.

He has five children: Amy Elisabeth Campbell, born December 19, 1970, Micah Andrew Campbell, born July 21, 1973, Nathan Alan Campbell, born July 21, 1973, Erin Rose Campbell, born July 29, 1980, and Duncan Joseph Campbell, born March 22, 1993. He is married to Julie Appleton Campbell.

Permanent address: 6909 Grove Crest, Austin, TX 78736.

This dissertation was typed by Craig H. Campbell