"The basic empirical theory of socialism is both more coherent and yet more conditional than is often supposed; and the moral doctrine of socialism is wholly consistent with the theory... The doctrine asserts the primacy and mutual dependence of the values of 'liberty, equality, and fraternity'... Equality is the specifically socialist value... Liberty deserves almost fanatic support from democratic socialists... Equality is the value basic to any possible kind of socialism... Poverty and unemployment [should be] as antique as slavery... Equality does not mean sameness... Exact equality of income is someone else's nightmare, not the democratic socialist's dream... A socialist society would have more diversity in it, not less... Fraternity arises from working together towards common ends." - Bernard Crick, socialist academic and writer, 1992.

"Socialism was, in the first place, an ethic. Central were words like 'cooperation', 'commonwealth', and 'fellowship'. Classical socialism was not primarily about equality. It is possible for liberals and anarchists to be egalitarians, while the distinctively socialist belief that distribution of rewards ought to be socially determined leaves open what the distribution should be. Still less was socialism about liberty. The term that mattered most was fraternity. We might call it 'community'. Secondly... socialists took it for granted that social ownership would be more efficient than private, and a planned economy than a free market... Socialist doctrine allotted a unique role to the proletariat... Socialism was a secular religion." - David Marquand, liberal academic, 1997.

"Democratic socialism in Britain was the political heir of the Radical-Liberal tradition... The ethical basis of socialism is based on a moral assertion that individuals are interdependent, that they owe duties to one another as well as to themselves, that the good society backs up the efforts of the individuals within it, and that common humanity demands that everyone be given a platform on which to stand... Only by recognizing their interdependence will individuals flourish... We share responsibility to fight prejudice, poverty, and unemployment, and to create one nation - tolerant, fair, enterprising, inclusive... Socialists have to be both moralists and empiricists. Values are fundamental." - Tony Blair, rightwing Labour politician, 1995.

"Socialism means equality of income... Socialism denies any private right of property whatever. (Socialism [does not object] to personal possessions.)... It is fundamental in Socialism that idleness shall not be tolerated on any terms... It is impossible to imagine a flatter contradiction [than between Socialism and Trade Unionism]... Socialism abhors poverty... Socialism loathes almsgiving... Socialism will not hear of [worker ownership]. It insists that all industries should be owned by the whole community, and regulated in the interests of the consumer, who must be able to buy at cost-price without paying a profit to anybody... Trade Unionism, Peasant Proprietorship, Workers' control [are] crude misunderstandings of Socialism; [they are] really only Poor Man's Capitalism, like Poor Man's Gout." - George Bernard Shaw, Fabian playwright, 1928/1937.

"Labour saw its objective as constructing a variant of British socialism, complete with public ownership of the means of production and entrenched rights for trade unions, before which British capitalism would necessarily retreat and change... The problem begins with the fluidity of the socialist ideal which, as Berki as remarked, stands variously for the values of 'freedom, equality, community, brotherhood, social justice, the classless society, cooperation, progress, peace, prospertity, abundance, happiness'. Within this pantheon of ideas capitalist reformers and revolutionaries alike can pitch their tents, each claiming to be true guardians of the socialist flame.... Is the aim to socialize capitalism - or outright socialization?" - Will Hutton, social-democratic economist, 1995.

"socialism. belief that the main sources of a country's wealth (e.g. mines, large industries etc) should be owned by the government for the good of the people." - Collins Junior Dictionary, 1977.

"Proudhon held the disturbing view that returns to property - rents, profits and especially interest - were all forms of larceny... His solution, stripped to the barest of essentials, was to abolish interest (and other return on capital) and have property held by worker cooperatives or voluntary associations of workers... In Proudhon's society the state would disappear." - John Kenneth Galbraith, Keynesian economist, on Proudhon (19th-century socialist/anarchist), 1987.

"Socialists have long advocated public ownership as a means of achieving basic Socialist ideals. They have seen public ownership as a means towards a fairer distrubution of wealth throughout the community, by eradicating unearned private income from profits and dividends, and as a means of achieving production for use rather than for profit, thereby making the best use of available resources. Socialists have also argued that it is in the public interest that the essential industries (or 'the commanding heights of the economy') should be publicly owned, with this being particularly true for the public utilities.... A public monopoly is answerable to democratic controls.... Public ownership of large sections of industry can be a vital means of influencing national economic policy..." - R. M. Punnett, 1968/1980, university lecturer and author.

"Socialism was a collectivist creed. It opposed the exploiters and manipulators for the protection not just of the individual but of society as a whole. It took its name from the idea of fellowship, or, in the modern idiom, 'solidarity'. It maintained that the poor, weak and oppressed could not be guaranteed a tolerable life except by the pooling of iresources by the equitable distribution of wealth, and by the subordination of individual rights to the common good. Unlike liberalism, it did not fear the modern state; on the contrary, it looked to the state as the arbiter and often as the prime mover of compassionate measures. 19th century socialism [drew] from four sources: Christian socialism, the trade union movement, the co-operative movement, and the 'utopian' socialist theorists." - Norman Thomas, historian, 1996.

"[Simone de Beauvoir] hated: the political Right, orthodox thoughts, and religion... [She was] emotionally and intellectually opposed to the middle class... Jean-Paul Sarte [does not necessarily] reject Marxism but he seeks to retrieve the living individual within Marxism." - André Maurois on the socialism of Sartre and Beauvoir, 1967.

"socialism. 1. an economic theory or system in which the means of production, distribution, and exchange are owned by the community collectively, usually through the state. It is characterized by production for use rather than profit, by equality of individual wealth, by the absence of competitive economic activity, and, usually, by government determination of investment, prices, and production levels... 3. (in Marxist[-Leninist] theory) a transitional stage after the proletarian revolution in the development of a society from capitalism to communism: characterized by the distribution of income according to work rather than need." - Collins English Dictionary, 1979/1986.

"I welcome the growing importance of the workers' control movement because it goes to the heart of what I have always understood socialism to mean." - Bertrand Russell, philosopher, atheist, leftist, 1968.

"We are re-stating our Socialism in terms of the scientific revolution... Socialism, as I understand it, means applying a sense of purpose to our national life: economic purpose, social purpose and moral purpose. Purpose means technical skill... Ability is not to be measured by upper-class accents." - Harold Wilson, Labour leader, 1964.

"I am well aware that it is now the fashion to deny that Socialism has anything to do with equality. In every country of the world a huge tribe of party-hacks and sleek little professors are busy 'proving' that Socialism means no more than a planned state-capitalism with the grab-motive left intact. But fortunately there also exists a vision of Socialism quite different from this... The Spanish militias were a sort of microcosm of a classless society. In that community where no one was on the make, where there was a shortage of everything but no privilege and no boot-licking, one got, perhaps, a crude forecast of what the opening stages of Socialism might be like... and... it deeply attracted me." - George Orwell, socialist writer, 1936.

"Socialism, term with a range of meanings historically, centred on the idea of a community in which the means of production - land, factories, capital - are socially or collectively owned and in which production is democratically planned and controlled for the benefit of all. Such a community need not be large, and social ownership need not be state ownership. Socialist ideas arose as a response to the misery and inequality associated with the uncontrolled capitalism of the Industrial Revolution... The utopian socialists sought a substitution for competition and exploitation in various model communities based on cooperation and the social control of economic activity. Marx and Engels sought to make socialism scientific... The English guild socialists and the Italian and French syndicalists rejected parliamentary activitiy, and in particular any form of state control, in favour of systems based on workers' control of industry..." - Longman Encyclopedia, 1989.

"Socialism, political doctrine and movement, which advocates the partial or complete abolition of private property, and the establishment of society upon a basis of the common ownership of some or all of the means of production, distribution and exchange. It seeks... a planned economy, to protect the interests of worker and consumer. Springing from the same sources as Communism, Socialism has evolved along different lines, to the point where it is claimed that it offers an alternative to the faults of unrestricted capitalism on the one hand and of Communism on the other." - Everyman's Enyclopaedia, vol XI, 1950.

"socialism, doctrine of social organization which entails the common good prevailing over sectional interests, by way of collective organization and of oversight by society, and in general by the State." - Micro-Robert Dictionnaire de la Langue Française (my translation), 1988.

"Socialism could be defined as the political and economic theory that the wealth of a people should belong to the people, that everyone should be equal and that there should be security for all." - Robert Welch, York Notes on "1984", 1983.

"We find many subdivisions: Christian socialism, state and Marxian socialism, guild socialism, Fabian (or evolutionary) socialism, and many others... Often the leading European reform parties can be characterized as 'social democrats'. For example, the Labour party in Britain, the Germany Social Democratic party, the ruling parties in Sweden and Norway - all claim to be in favor of gradual, nonrevolutionary extension of socialism by peaceful and democratic methods... A few elements that characterize socialist philosophy: (1) Government ownership of productive resources. (In W. Germany and the UK, enthusiasm for nationalization seems to be ebbing.) (2) Planning. (3) Redistribution of income. (4) Peaceful and democratic revolution." - Paul A. Samuelson, professor at MIT, "Economics: An Introductory Analysis", 1955/1968.

"A classless, ownerless society is generally spoken of as 'Socialism'." - George Orwell, 1941.

"Socialism, social organization which places the means of production of wealth and the distribution of that wealth in the hands of the community. Socialism of the chair: the doctrine of a school of political economists (c.1872) in Germany, whose aim was mainly to better the condition of the working classes by factory acts, savings banks, insurance against sickness and old age, etc." - Chambers Dictionary, 1993.

"socialism, political system aiming at establishing a society in which everyone is equal." - Longman Top Pocket English Dictionary, 1989.

"socialism, that land or instruments of production should belong to communities or to governments, not to individuals." - Midget English Dictionary, c.1950.

"Socialism. The political, social and economic theories which aim at the establishment of a classless society, through the substitution of common for private ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange. The Communists believe that all means, including revolution and oppression, are justified in the pursuit of their aims. The Socialists are Social Democrats, i.e. they want to bring about a Socialist society by means such as elections and through democratic institutions such as Parliament. Some Social Democrats want a 'mixed economy', i.e. in which a large proportion of the means of production, distribution and exchange remains in private hands." - Junior Pears Encyclopedia, 1989.

"Socialism: movement aiming to establish a classless society by subtituting public for private ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange. The term describes positions as far apart as anarchism, communism, and social democracy." - Hutchinson Dictionary of 20th Century World History, 1994.

"Wilhelm Weitling published a booklet which defended, against the rich and powerful of the earth who caused all inequality and injustice, the right of all to education and happiness by means of social equality and justice." - David McLellan on early 19C German socialism, 1970.

"Factor four is called socialism. High scorers show favourable attitudes towards working-class people and resentment towards wealthy, upper-class people; they favour internationalism and the abolition of private property." - Eysenck and Wilson, psychologists, 1975.

"Socialism: free co-operation between equals." - David Smith, "Orwell for Beginners", 1984.

"Bismarck wanted to pass strict laws against the preaching of socialism, but the Liberals would not support him... The Liberals gave in, and stern laws were passed... These laws had as little effect as do most laws of such a kind - the Socialists merely passed their literature round secretly, and held their various meetings in Switzerland... Seeing the unrest among the working men owing to the spreading of Socialist ideas, [Bismarck] thought he might subdue the Socialists by taking a leaf from their book... The result was an admirable series of social laws - industrial insurance for accident, sickness, and old age. These laws worked so well that they have been studied and copied by many other nations; but they did not result in keeping the Socialists quiet. The workers naturally felt that this should be only the first step towards complete freedom of the working classes." - 'The History of [19C] Germany' in "The Wonderland of Knowledge", Vol V, c.1935.

"In the 11th century [in China] there was even an experiment... that sounds much more like the 20th century than the 11th... an experiment in State socialism. Wang An-shih wanted to make the State responsible for seeing that every citizen had a decent living, and to allow the government to manage all industry in the interests of the people. The reforms he introduced included old age pensions, minimum wage laws, and other things we usually imagine to be very modern indeed. But he never had a chance to work out his system very thoroughly, for he lost his power and his reforms were all swept away." - 'The history of China' in "The Wonderland of Knowledge", Vol VIII, c.1935.

"socialism, theory or system of social organisation which advocates the vesting of the ownership and control of the means of production, capital, land, etc, in the community as a whole." - Hamlyn World Dictionary, 1976.

"Socialism, is a form of society in which men and women are not divided into opposing economic classes but live together under conditions of approximate social and economic equality, using in common the means that lie to their hands of promoting social welfare. The brotherhood of man inspires the aims of socialism. The word 'socialism' first came into general use in England about 1834 in connection with Robert Owen's 'village of co-operation' at New Lanark. About the middle of the 19th century, Charles Kingsley and others established a form of Christian socialism, and William Morris, John Burns and others founded a Socialist League in 1886. With the development of trade unions the socialist movement took a more practical trend. Fabianism... aims at the gradual transformation of society by creating intelligent public opinion by education and legislation... Christian Socialism: tracts were written to expose the sweated industries, the consequences of unrestrained competition... Christian socialism fostered co-operative workshops and distributive societies... It supported the trade union movement's right to organise and bargain for its members." - Pears Cyclopedia, 84th edition, 1975.

"Chamberlain had tried, in 1885, to get the Liberal Party to take a more 'socialist' turn by providing state aid for the old, poor, unemployed and badly housed. Gladstone rejected this.... Socialism, for the late Victorians and the Edwardians, meant that the state ought to compel the people to cooperate to overcome social problems. 'Gas and water' Socialism was the term applied to the results of the work of Chadwick and Chamberlain with their environmental reforms.... There was a demand for such things as state pensions, subsidized housing, and a state health service." - Letts Study Guide GCSE History 1750-The Present, 1982 & 1986.

"Most socialists believe that governments, rather than individuals, should own a nation's resources.... The word 'socialism' was first used in the early 1800s... socialism meant opposition to the selfishness that some people thought was the root of any capitalist system... many factory owners made their employees work long hours with low pay and under unhealthy conditions... Countries in which Communist parties control the government are sometimes called 'socialist' but most socialists reject this use of the term... 'Socialism' and 'communism' once meant about the same thing... Today, people draw sharp distinctions between the two terms... Socialists reject most of the methods used by Communist parties... Socialists also reject dictatorial methods... They care more about the fair distribution of goods and services than about rapid economic growth... Socialists claim free enterprise systems are inefficient and wasteful... Many socialists call for redistribution of wealth through taxation. They favour laws to help the aged, the unemployed, the disabled and handicapped, dependent children, and other people in need. Many socialists believe that the government should also provide free education and medical service to everyone and should help all citizens obtain safe and sanitary housing at rents they can afford." - World Book Encyclopedia, 1996.

"Socialism, in which private property and the distribution of income are subject to social control... There are many different forms of socialism, depending on what is meant by 'social control'... In some socialist doctrines all industries are to be nationalized, while in others only the largest or most important, such as banks or natural resources, should be owned by the state... Socialism can be statist or libertarian, Marxist or 'liberal', revolutionary or gradualist, cosmopolitan or internationalist... The German social democrats, under Bernstein, doubted the imminent collapse [postulated by Marx] of capitalism. They favoured a moderate socialism that was more liberal and reformist than revolutionary. Bernstein was bitterly opposed by Kautsky... Other forms of 19th-century socialism included Christian socialism..., and guild socialism, which stressed worker control.... 20th-century socialist practices were just as diverse ranging from... the strictly centralized socialism of the Soviet Union... to the more decentralized Yugoslavian model... Noncommunist socialism found its chief expression in the welfare state exemplified by Sweden, Denmark, and Great Britain... The adoption of some national welfare ideas by strenuously nonsocialist systems such as the US testifed to the strength of many socialist ideals." - Encyclopaedia Britannica, Micropaedia, 1995.

"There is no precise canon on which the various adherents of contemporary socialist movements agree. The most that can be said is that socialism is, in the words of Anthony Crosland, a British socialist, 'a set of values, or aspirations, which socialists wish to see embodied in the organization of society'... Some have argued that only the complete nationalization of the means of production would suffice to implement their aims. Others have proposed selective nationalization of key industries, with controlled private ownership of the remainder. Some socialists insist that only strong centralized state direction and a command economy will suffice. Others advocate a "market socialism" in which the market economy would be guided and directed by socialist planners... Some envisage direction by government. Others advocate as much dispersion and decentralization as possible... to public boards, quasi-public trusts, municipalities, or self-governing communities of producers. Some advocate workers' control; others would rely on governmental planning boards... Some hope for an absolute equality of income, whereas others aim only at ensuring an adequate income for all... Society would assure all citizens minimum levels of housing, clothing, and nourishment, as well as free access to essential services... Socialists also proclaim the need for more equal political rights for all citizens." - Encyclopaedia Britannica, Macropaedia, 15th ed., 1994.

"Most socialists would agree that social and economic relationships play a major part in determining human possibilities, and that the unequal ownership of property under capitalism creates an unequal and conflictive society. The removal of private property or some means of counterbalancing its power, it is held, will produce a more equal society where individuals enjoy greater freedom and are able to realize their potential more fully. A socialist society will thus be more cooperative and fraternal. Possibly the major division within socialism is between those who believe that to bring it about revolution is necessary and those who believe change can be achieved through reforms within the confines of democratic politics. There are also differences of opinion as to how far capitalist production needs to be eradicated to bring about a socialist society." - Cambridge Encyclopedia, 3rd Ed, 1997. Same text in Larousse Dictionary of Beliefs and Religions, 1992.

Socialism - All socialists are broadly committed to equality and to policies intended to bring it about. These traditionally included collective ownership of the economy as well as extensive welfare measures. - Comparative Government and Politics: An Introduction (Hague, Harrop, Breslin), 3rd Ed., 1992.

socialism - A society may be seen as a socialist one if the major part of the means of production of goods and services are not in private hands, but are in some sense socially owned and operated, by state, socialized, or cooperative enterprises. - The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics (Milgate, Newman, Palgrave), 1987.

socialism - A body of teaching and practice resting upon the belief that most social evils are due to excessively unequal distribution of material resources; [and can be cured by the]...transference, total or partial, of the ownership of property and of the means of production and distribution... to public control. - Chambers's Encyclopaedia, New Edition, 1950.

socialism - [The beliefs that] the existing system of society [is] unjust... morally unsound; ...that there can be created a different form of society... based on moral values... It is not the same as a belief in progress... [but rather] justice... The great majority of socialists have been democrats. - The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (ed. Edwards), 1967.

socialism... advocates the ownership and control of the means of production, capital, land, property, etc. by the community as a whole, and their administration or distribution in the interests of all. - Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd Ed., 1989.

socialism... aims at securing [democratically]... a better distribution, and... a better production, of wealth than now prevails... The leading idea of the socialist is to convert into general benefit what is now the gain of the few. - Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911.

socialism - a political system in which the means of production, distribution and exchange are mostly owned by the state, and used, at least in theory, on behalf of the people... Under socialism, the state redistributes the wealth of society in a more equitable way... Socialism as a system is anathema to most Americans, although many social welfare programs like Medicare and Medicaid (once derided by their opponents as "socialized medicine") and Social Security are socialistic in effect... - Fast Times Political Dictionary

Socialism - A proposed economic system in which workers, not private capitalist individuals, own and control the means of production. - Liberalism Resurgent's Glossary.

Our socialism... is [rooted in] a profound commitment to democracy. Democracy is not simply one of our political values but our means of restructuring society. - Democratic Socialists of America.

socialism. The economy is democratically managed by and for the benefit of all humanity, not for the private profit of a few. At the same time, socialism is committed to a renewable and sustainable future through its inherent respect and nurturing of life on earth. - Socialist Party USA.

The Socialist International is committed, as ever, to the democratisation on a global scale of economic, social and political power structures. [The International] combines its traditional struggle for freedom, justice and solidarity with a deep commitment to peace, the protection of the environment, and the development of the South. - The Socialist International.

My translation - the struggle for a betterment of social relationships, especially for a reorganization of the economy and a more equitable distribution of goods. - Deutsches Woerterbuch von Jacob und Wilhelm Grimm (Leipzig, 1905)

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