The Study of Matter

Kinds of Matter
The periodic table organizes matter based on different physical and chemical properties. Elements are distinctly arranged on the periodic table according to the number of electrons in their outer shell and their similarity in chemical activity. The vertical columns are called families while the horizontal rows are called periods. Matter may be thought of as one single element or a physical or chemical combination of two or more elements. Students need to understand the arrangement of elements on the periodic table and the chemical behavior of elements in certain categories.

Properties of Matter
Matter is the substance of which all objects are made. It can be described by its properties and changes. In essence, all substances have physical and chemical properties and most substances are capable of undergoing physical and chemical changes. The states of matter, including physical and chemical properties and the distinction between elements, compounds, and mixtures will be studied.

Atoms and Elements
Atoms are the smallest bits of matter. Scientists have identified and classified 109 different kinds of atoms. Each atom is distinguished from other atoms by the number of particles each has. The elements are grouped and studied according to their characteristics. Atoms are grouped on the periodic table and their atomic number, mass number, isotopes, symbols, and radioactivity are given.

Changes in Matter
When changes take place in matter, energy is either lost or gained. Matter may go through a gradual change, like freezing, or a sudden drastic change, like an explosion. Regardless of the type of change, energy is involved. When energy is gained, matter absorbs energy. If a substance loses energy, energy is released in the form of heat, light or electricity. Changes in matter may be chemical, physical or nuclear. The form or composition of matter may be changed, but no matter is lost when a change is involved.

Chemical Reactions
Since almost everything on Earth is made of compounds and these compounds sometimes change, chemists have developed ways to determine what element or combination of elements make up materials around us. They have also found ways to group chemical changes. We will explore the concepts of chemical change, covalent and ionic compounds, and chemical reactions.

Compounds
We will study the properties of compounds, including a comparison of ionic and covalent compounds and the naming of compounds and the writing of chemical formulas.

Mixtures
Substances which undergo no reaction when mixed together form mixtures. In a mixture, all substances retain their own properties. Solutions and suspensions are special kinds of mixtures. Terms for mixtures include dissolve, solvent, solute, dilute, concentrated, and saturated.

Acids and Bases
An acid is a compound that releases hydrogen ions in water, while a base is a compound that releases hydroxide ions in water. A salt is a product of a reaction between an acid and a base. We will review the concepts of acid, base, and salt. Among the terms used are acid, base, salt, neutralization reaction, and indicators.

Earth Science

The Basic Sciences That Support Earth Science
Earth science depends upon and uses the same basic principles that govern all sciences. Earth science is a good example of how the sciences inter-relate and depend upon one another.
Biology, the study of living things and their relationship to their environment, is important to earth scientists because 1) living things change their physical environment, and 2) fossils help earth scientists estimate the age of rock and mineral deposits.
Chemistry, the study of the composition of matter, is essential to an understanding of all matter from rocks and minerals to stars to oceans.
Physics, the study of matter and energy, describes laws and principles that affect us all.

The Structure of the Earth
The earth is one small entity of the entire universe. The surface of the earth is unique because it supports life. Much is known about the surface of the earth, while many facts about its interior remain unknown due to the difficulty in developing means of combatting the intensity of the heat and pressure. The earth is believed to have three distinct layers: the core, mantle and crust. These layers are believed to be subdivided into smaller areas. Studying the earth's structure provides us with introductory level geology skills, and helps us to understand specific earth movements.
The solid earth is called the geosphere. The outer layer, where we live and work, is called the crust. Beneath the crust are two other layers, the mantle and the core. We know a lot about the crust because we can examine it directly, but most of what we know about the earth, including its oblate spheroid shape, we have deduced from indirect evidence. The orbit of the moon has helped us calculate the mass of the earth, the shock waves given off by earthquakes indicate which of the interior layers of the earth are liquid. The lower density of the crust compared with the dense interior suggests that the earth was once molten. Earth scientists are still studying the earth.

The Changing Earth
Previously we have discovered that changes within the earth's surface as well as changes within the interior were primarily due to naturally occuring forces. These changes have basically been recorded and traced within the history of exposed rock layers. These forces, both destructive and constructive, create a constantly changing earth.

Weathering and Erosion
Why does soil disappear in one area and appear in another? This mysterious exchange of localities of land is due to the works of constructive and destructive forces within our environment. Forces such as wind, water, heat, pressure, and glaciers have aided in producing constant changes in the surface of the land. Understanding the nature of the forces which change the external features of the earth provides us with insight into why changes take place in the topography of the land.

Resources
Most of the matter and energy that people use comes from materials of the earth. The earth is the source of food for all living things, building materials, and energy-- that is used to heat homes, run machines, and produce electricity. These valuable materials found in nature and used by people are known as natural resources.
In this unit, you will learn about the valuable materials taken from the earth.

Conservation of Resources
Most of the matter and energy that people use comes from materials of the earth. As the population of the earth increases, people use more and more of these resources without replacing them. We must conserve our resources or we will soon be without materials we need. In this unit, you will learn about the importance of conserving and protecting our natural resources through careful use, recycling, and developing alternate sources.

Minerals and Their Chemistry
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids that are formed in the earth. Minerals all have definite chemical compositions; that is, they are either elements or compounds. They might contain impurities, but they are of a known composition. Most (over 90%) of the minerals on the earth's surface are silicates. Silicates contain silicon (Si) and oxygen (O), the two most abundant elements on the earth's crust. The non-silicates include the carbonates, oxides, sulfates, sulfides, and the precious native elements such as gold, silver, platinum, copper, and diamonds. Of the more than 2,000 minerals that have been described, only 20 are considered common.

Rocks and Their Composition
Rocks begin as naturally occurring mixtures of minerals that form from the cooling of the earth's magma. Magma is molten rock inside the earth. Upon cooling, magma forms igneous rock. Igneous rocks then change into other types of rock. Sedimentary rocks can include organic material, and any type of rock can return to magma.

Plate Tectonics
It is hard to believe that the continents and even the oceans are floating and drifting on pieces of the earth's lithosphere. This hypothesis was proposed more than ninety years ago and called the "Continental Drift" hypothesis. For fifty years, supporting evidence has been accumulating. The pieces of lithosphere are called "plates" and the explanation of this interesting phenomenon is called the "Plate Tectonics" theory. The term tectonics is from the Greek word for construction.
This theory is able to account for mountain building, the location of coal deposits, earthquakes, volcanoes, the similarities of fossils on different continents, glacial deposits, and the differences between oceanic crust and continental crust. It is a reminder that the earth is still changing. The earth's crust is composed of plates that move over the mantle. The continents are believed to have once been joined in a single land mass. This land mass broke up as a result of movements of the plates.
In this unit, you will learn about the theory of continental drift and the evidence found to support it. You will also learn about sea-floor spreading and how it relates to the theory of plate tectonics.

Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Earthquakes and volcanoes are our two most exciting and threatening geologic events. They have other things in common, too. First, neither one can be predicted with any certainty; second, both of these activities are likely to occur near the boundaries of the earth's crustal plates; and three, both activities have yielded valuable information about the earth's structure, composition, and history. Earthquakes are vibrations in the earth's interior. Many are too slight to be noticed; a few cause devastating losses of life and property. Volcanoes are outpourings of molten magma from the earth's mantle. The extruded magma is called lava. Volcano cones form from the cooling lava.

The Fossil Record and the Earth's History
Fossils are evidences of past life. A fossil can be as complete as an entire organism imprinted in limestone or as fragmentary as a leaf print or a footprint. These evidences of past life not only reveal the history of life on earth but from them we can learn a lot about the history of the earth itself.
Most fossils are found in sedimentary rocks. The history of the earth is described in a geologic time table that is based on the fossil record.

Earth's Resources
Materials that are taken from the earth for human use are called natural resources. Resources are of two types: 1) renewable resources that can be replenished from year to year, and 2) non-renewable resources that would be prohibitively expensive or impossible to replace. Air, water, plants, and animals are considered renewable resources. Minerals, coal, oil, and natural gas are considered non-renewable because in many cases it would take millions of years to replenish them.
Many of our non-renewable resources are used for energy; therefore, reduc- ing our energy demands would be an important first step in conservation.

Famous Geologists, and Careers in Geology
Geology offers many career opportunities with a wide range of specialties. Some of these careers require advanced college degrees but many can be entered with a high school diploma and some additional technical training.
For more information you may write to:
American Geological Institute
4220 King Street
Alexandria, Virginia 22302

The Composition of the Earth's Atmosphere
The earth is enveloped in a mixture of gases called the atmosphere. The earth's gravitational field holds the atmosphere close to the earth. The concentration of gas molecules is greatest close to the earth's surface and the atmosphere gradually thins until it merges with outer space. Although not marked by distinct boundaries, the atmosphere is composed of four layers. The one closest to the earth is the TROPOSPHERE; our weather takes place in the troposphere. The next layer is called the STRATO- SPHERE; it includes the important ozone layer. Next is the MESOSPHERE, which is the coldest layer. The outermost layer or THERMOSPHERE contains the ionosphere. Radio transmission depends on the ionosphere.

Atmospheric Water
Only a small percentage of the atmosphere is water vapor, yet there seems to be a vast amounts of water leaving and returning to the atmosphere (as precipitation and evaporation). The amount maybe minute, but it play a major role in controlling conditions within the atmosphere. It powers the water cycle, controls the humidity, produces clouds, and provides various forms of precipitation. We depend upon solar energy to power our natural water system. Water vapor in our atmosphere plays a vital role in making the earth suitable for life.

Solar Radiation and the Seasons
Meteorology is the study of the earth's atmosphere and those variations in the earth's atmosphere we call weather and climate.
Weather is induced by variations in the amount of sunlight the earth receives as it rotates on its axis and revolves around the sun. The seasons are the result of both the length of daylight and the amount of the sun's energy that strikes the earth at the various latitudes. Length of daylight varies least at the equator and is the most pronounced at the poles. The temperate zones in between are the most inhabitable.

Meteorology: Wind Patterns and the Earth's Rotation
Winds are movements of the atmosphere. The paths these movements take depend upon: 1) variations in temperature and 2) the earth's rotation. The effect of the earth's rotation is called the CORIOLIS EFFECT.
The troposphere, or layer of atmosphere closest to the earth's surface, is the densest layer of atmosphere, and the one involved in wind patterns. Warm air at the earth's surface is forced up as colder air moves in under it. As this rising air cools, it sinks back to the earth's surface in a cyclical pattern called a CONVECTION CELL. Convection cells form belts of planetary winds that travel around the world. The polar easterlies, the westerlies, the monsoons, and the trade winds are all planetary winds.

Precipitation, Weathering, and Erosion
Precipitation is water that falls to the earth in the form of rain, snow, sleet or hail. It is the means by which most land masses receive their fresh water and it is an important step in the water (hydrologic) cycle. The water cycle begins by the evaporation of water from the oceans. The water vapor in the atmosphere moves upward until the atmosphere is too cold to hold it. The water then condenses onto tiny particles of dust or salt from sea spray and clouds are formed. Clouds may be CUMULUS, CIRRUS, or STRATUS depending upon their shape. The clouds move over the land, cloud droplets merge into larger raindrops and precipitation takes place. Water is the principal agent of erosion and causes great changes in the land. Most of the water that falls on the land soon returns to the ocean.

Weather and Weather Maps
The weather of an area is the general condition of the atmosphere there. Weather is continuously changing because it depends upon temperature, air pressure, humidity, and wind patterns. The continental United States has a complex weather pattern; it is located between two areas where high pressure air masses are formed and collide. Air masses are large blocks of air that acquire their temperature and moisture from the area over which they were formed. Air masses do not mix when they collide, rather they form a front (much like a battle front). The preparation of weather maps help meteorologists to measure the advance of frontal zones and forecast the weather. Weather describes the daily condition of the atmosphere. Most of our activities are affected by the weather. Scientists who study weather and make predictions about it are meteorologists. This unit reviews the elements of weather and the conditions which create it. Some of the terms discussed are air masses, fronts, air pressure, and humidity.

Forecasting the Weather
Weather forecasts aid people in planning activities for school, work and recreation. Due to the effects of weather on the activities of people, it is pertinent to know the kinds of data that are needed to make forecasts.
This unit consists of information related to how weather forecasts are made and the different kinds of instruments used to gather weather data. Weather forecasting is dependent upon many factors and requires several sophisticated tools. Water vapor in our atmosphere plays a vital role in making the earth suitable for for life. A knowledge of weather forecasting provides us with the opportunity to understand the science of meteorology. It is by no means completely accurate; most predictions can be made with some degree of accuracy within a twenty four hour time period (beyond that it is speculation). The use of satellites and more advanced equipment has drastically improved the quality of weather forecasting and added validity to meteorological studies.

Precipitation
In order to test hypotheses and develop theories earth scientists need to make many careful measurements. Most of their instruments are calibrated in the SI system of measures. Using the same measuring system world-wide is a great convenience for scientists. This unit will review the basic units of the Standard International system of metric measures (SI).
In order to show and test the relationships they learn about, scientists develop models. Some models are actual physical models like the globes and maps, others are conceptual or mathematical models. This unit describes some of the kinds of maps and models used by earth scientists.

World Climate and Careers in Meteorology
Climate is the average weather pattern over a long period of time. Climate changes slowly, in contrast to weather, which changes continuously. The two important factors of climate are temperature and precipitation. The earth has three major climate zones. They are the tropical climate zone, the temperate climate zone, and the polar climate zone. Each zone has several subdivisions due to local influences such as mountain ranges, oceans, wind patterns, and altitude.
Forecasting changes in the weather and exploring changes in the climate present many opportunities for fascinating and rewarding careers.

Oceanography
More than seventy percent of the earth's surface is made up of water. Oceans are large bodies of salt water which separates deposits of land. Being an oceanographer is unique, because it provides individuals with the opportunity to explore sea life as well as depth and density of fluids. Oceanography incorporates sciences such as physics, chemistry, the earth sciences, biology, and engineering.

Ocean Basins and Their Shorelines
Seventy per cent of the earth's surface is covered with water. The entire earth's surface could be thought of as one great ocean with the continents appearing as large islands. For convenience, we divide this huge body of water into four oceans and a number of smaller seas.
The shoreline is the boundary between the oceans and the land. Because of land and sea erosion (as well as changes in sea level), shorelines are in a continuous state of change.
Ocean basins, once believed to resemble bathtubs, are now known to have topographies more complex than those of the continents.

Atmospheric Water
Only a small percentage of the atmosphere is water vapor, yet there seems to be a vast amounts of water leaving and returning to the atmosphere (as precipitation and evaporation). The amount maybe minute, but it play a major role in controlling conditions within the atmosphere. It powers the water cycle, controls the humidity, produces clouds, and provides various forms of precipitation. We depend upon solar energy to power our natural water system. Water vapor in our atmosphere plays a vital role in making the earth suitable for life.

Waves, Currents, and Tides
A number of factors combine to keep the waters of oceans and seas in constant motion. The sun evaporates water from the ocean surface. Tides, caused by gravitational pulls of the sun and moon, bulge the oceans out on each side of the earth. The earth's rotation and its effect on the atmos- phere helps to maintain ocean currents that flow like enormous rivers through the oceans and seas. Differences in temperature and the saltiness of sea water in different areas set up density currents that sink or rise as they move through the oceans. Winds and storms move over the surface of the water and cause swells that travel hundreds of miles across open sea. Finally, earthquakes shake the oceanic crust and set up giant waves called tsunamis that strike coastlines with tremendous destructiveness.

Ocean Waters
Ocean water, also called sea water, is a mixture of pure water in which salts and gases are dissolved and in which particles and tiny organisms are suspended.
The earth is the only planet known to contain water in the liquid phase. It is also the only planet known to support life.
Even though rivers carry billions of kilograms of dissolved substances into the ocean waters each year, the relative amounts of dissolved matter in the ocean waters remains at a remarkably constant 35 grams per kilogram of water.

Ocean Life
It is clear from the fossil record that life began in the oceans. Marine fossils are billions of years older than any known land forms. Life in the ocean is both abundant and precarious. Living things are in constant danger of being eaten by other organisms. Marine animals and plants are classified according to the area of the oceans they most frequently occupy and by their feeding habits. PLANKTON are microscopic plants and animals that float or drift on the ocean surface. They are the basis of most of the food pyramids. NEKTON swim through the middle layers and BENTHOS are the bottom dwellers.

Ocean Resources and Careers in Oceanography
The oceans occupy most of the earth's surface. Their many resources have barely been tapped.
The principal resources taken from the ocean today are those which are in the greatest abundance, that is, fresh water and salt. The oceans also contain enough protein-rich food to nourish the earth's entire population as well as tremendous amounts of mineral wealth in gold, manganese, and cobalt. The challenge is to not pollute and contaminate this great resource before it can be economically and prudently harvested.

Rivers, Streams, and the Problems of Pollution
Rain is our main source of fresh water. Most of the rain that falls on land runs off in streams, rivers, or seeps underground. Running water then becomes the main cause of soil erosion and landscape alterations.
Rivers begin as rills following rainfall, the rills join creeks, then streams and finally rivers. The entire system is called a drainage system and the area of land it drains is called its drainage basin. Large river systems combine to drain even larger areas called watersheds. Groundwater seeps underground where it may become trapped in aquifers. Pollution of any water supply can be damaging to entire drainage systems.

Glaciers, Lakes, and Fresh Water Resources
Two thirds of the earth's fresh water exists in the form of glaciers. These huge masses of moving ice are today confined to high elevations and extreme latitudes. The earth's history and the earth's topography both show the effects of these large masses on the earth.
Many of our most beautiful and spectacular lakes are of glacier origin. Lakes are among our most valuable resources as a source of fresh water, for recreation, for their support of wildlife, and for their beauty.
Today we have abundant fresh water to supply our needs; we also have the responsibility to keep the sources of this water free of contamination.

The Solar System and the History of Astronomy
Astronomy, especially the astronomy of the solar system, is our oldest science. For centuries man studied the stars, especially the wanderers, as the planets were called, and tried to understand their motions and of what importance they could be to him.
Modern telescopes and, more recently, space probes have brought us so much information about the planets in our solar system that we are still assimilating it. Although we are not yet able to answer all of the age old questions such as "Are we alone in the universe?" or "How and when was the solar system formed?" we have learned enough about our neighboring planets to be able to predict almost all of their motions.

The Milky Way Galaxy and Beyond
As vast as our solar system seems to us, it is only a speck in a galaxy of stars that is 100,000 light years across and 10,000 light years thick. This galaxy is called the Milky Way Galaxy because when we see it in the night sky it looks like a channel of spilled milk. Our earth and the rest of our solar system is 2/3 of the way out along one of the galaxy's spiral arms.
Many of the stars we see are members of our own galaxy but other objects we detect in the sky are from even greater distances than 100,000 light years. Some are other galaxies (many larger than our own); others are sources of radio waves we cannot see but call quasars.

The Exploration of Space and Careers in Astronomy
Many instruments have been developed to explore space. Until the begin- ning of this century, the most valuable instrument was the telescope. The telescope was greatly improved and modified to receive signals beyond the visible range. Infrared and radio telescopes have both been important in the exploration of space. All earlier means of collecting data about space have been dwarfed by the accomplishments made possible by spacecraft that orbit the earth. This new technology has opened many exciting career opportunities.

The Earth-Moon System
Topics covered in this unit include the layers of the earth, the earth's movements, place in the universe, relationship with the moon, and the moon phases. Topics covered in this unit include the layers of the earth, the earth's movements, place in the universe, relationship with the moon, and the moon phases.

Solar System
This unit deals with information about the sun and the objects which revolve around it. This includes the nine planets, comets, asteroids, and meteors. Also discussed is the make-up of the sun, rotation, and revolution.

Beyond the Solar System
Our solar system is a part of a larger galaxy called the Milky Way. There are other stars in our galaxies beyond which scientists now study. This unit reviews the various types of stars and how they were formed. Among the terms discussed are red giant, white dwarf, supernova, quasar, pulsar, and nebula.

Planets of the Solar System
A survey of the planets in the solar system including the shape, the characteristics of various planets, comets, meteors, meteoroids, and meteorites are discussed. A survey of the planets in the solar system including the shape, the characteristics of various planets, comets, meteors, meteoroids, and meteorites are discussed.

The Sun
The composition and structure and special features of the sun are described. An explanation of how the sun produces energy and how energy reaches the earth is presented in this unit. The composition and structure and special features of the sun are described. An explanation of how the sun produces energy and how energy reaches the earth is presented in this unit.

Space Exploration
Scientists have studied the skies for many years with the aid of telescopes. This limited the information they could gather because Earth's atmosphere filtered out most of the x-rays and ultraviolet rays. Since the development of satellites, space shuttles, and other exploration vehicles, much more can be learned about the universe. This unit reviews telescopes, satellites, space shuttles, and other means of exploring space.

Physical Science

Energy Resources
Where do all these different energy sources come from? What can our society do to control the use of energy resources? We refer to energy resources as those natural substances that provide us with heat, light, electricity, modes of transportation and necessities for comfortable livelihood. The sun, wood, water, natural gas, nuclear reactors, wind and fossil fuels all serve as sources of energy. Each of these resources may provide energy in a different way, but the purpose is the same. Energy resources serve as mediums for improving our quality of life.

Force and Work
This unit classifies kinds of forces and describes how they are measured. The concepts of work and power are presented and simple and compound machines are explained.
Scientists have discovered many forces which act on objects in our environment. A force is a push or a pull. Among the forces we will study are gravity, which is the attraction two bodies have toward each other; friction, the force that resists motion; magnetism, the force between magnets; and buoyancy, the force exerted by a fluid.

Gravity and Motion
What is motion? When does motion take place? Anything that is not stationary is considered to be motion. However, as we will learn, almost everything is experiencing some sort of motion. (Even the tree oustide your window is moving as is revolves with the earth around the sun.) Motion is actually a change in the position of an object relative to a particular fixed point.
Scientists have discovered many connections among different types of motions. In fact, Isaac Newton's three laws describe the properties of objects at rest and in motion. You will discover in this unit that motions are described in terms of speed, velocity, acceleration, distance, and displacement.
The differences between weight and mass, and speed and velocity will be reviewed. Newton's laws of motion, the effect of gravity, projectile motion, motion in curves, and momentum will be identified.

Light and Heat
Why do objects have color? Why do you feel cool or warm? Light and heat are forms of energy that we use our senses to detect. We see color as result of the bending of light rays. Our nerves detect the presence of heat. The sun is our most obvious source of light and heat. The angle at which these rays strike our planet determines the amount of light and heat we recieve, thus determining the seasons. Light and heat travel in bundles or energy packets. They do not require a medium for transmission to take place.
We will distinguish between heat and temperature and describe the effects of changes in heat content on matter. The principles and practical applications of heat engines will be discussed.
You will become acquainted with characteristics of waves, especially light waves. Waves are disturbances that travel through matter or space in regular patterns. These movements also transfer energy from place to place and may be classified as mechanical or electromagnetic. Visible light, ultra-violet light, infra-red light and x-rays are all examples of electromagnetic waves. Sound is an example of mechanical waves. We will review the behavior of electromagnetic waves, especially visible light.

Waves and Sound
The properties and behaviors of waves include reflection, refraction, and diffraction.
Sound waves are mechanical waves. They are also called compressional waves because of the way they move through matter. Unlike electromagnetic waves, sound waves must move through matter. We will review the concepts of compressional waves, especially sound, and the behavior of sound waves in certain situations.

Electricity and Magnetism
The flow of electrons through mediums have completely altered the quality of our life styles. It has changed our concept about existence during the twentieth century. Our knowledge of electricity and magnetism has improved our economic, social and industrial standings in society. We are no longer dependent upon antiquated techniques of operating industrial plants and providing heat and light to our communities. Physics allows us to explore the nature of electricity and magnetism.
We will study the movement of electrons and explain why they are important in creating electricity as a form of energy. We will learn such terms as insulator, conductor, electric motor, electromagnet, kilowatt-hour, magnetic field, and voltage and how they relate to the study of electricity.
Current electricity is used to provide many conveniences in modern life. From the invention of the light bulb to the use of the integrated circuit, many changes have taken place. We will review the uses of electricity, including such terms as vacuum tube, transistor, and integrated circuit.

Nuclear Energy
The nucleus of an atom is very minute, yet it can be manipulated to provide megaunits of energy to industrial plants. It can generate enough energy to launch a rocket into space and set it into orbit for an extended period of time. It can produce enough electrical power to supply an entire community, or it can produce enough force to destroy an entire country. It is increasingly becoming usefull in medicine. Nuclear energy can be quite useful or violently destructive. The science that deals with the study of nuclear energy is nuclear physics.

Life Science

The Characteristics of Life
The focus of this unit is on the characteristics of living things. This includes the life processes of all cells of organisms, the structure and function of the cell, and an explanation of the cell theory.

Exploring The Cell
The cell is the simplest particle of an organism, yet it plays a huge role in forming the complex structures of all living organisms. The cell serves as a building block for organs and tissues, which combine to form complex systems (such as the digestive or nervous system). Cells may exist in many shapes and forms and are composed of several minute integral parts. The intricate functions of cell parts support life within organisms, while codes and messages provided through DNA and RNA regulate the activities of organisms. Studying cells provides us with some degree of insight into the complexity of organisms.
Materials move into and out of the cell by diffusion, osmosis, and active transport. The processes of respiration and photosynthesis will be described and the stages of Mitosis will be identified.
The basic unit of life is the cell. We will review the processes that distinguish living from non-living things and identify the parts of the cell and their functions and the differences between plant and animal cells.

Invertebrates
Invertebrates are classified as any animal not having a vertebral column or a backbone. There are numerous species of invertebrates. They are grouped according to their body structure. They may vary in body structure from simple to more complex animals, some existing as a single layer of tissues. Each group possess life styles specific to that particular group of animal. We will also gain some insight into taxonomy through studying this unit. We will explore the structure, method of reproduction, traits, and degree of complexity of various groups of
The traits of cold blooded vertebrates are discussed. Similarities and differences in the characteristics of fish, reptiles, and amphibians are identified and examples are given for each group.

Warmblooded Vertebrates
Individual traits and characteristics of warmblooded vertebrates birds and mammals are presented in this unit. Special features and adaptations of birds are identified.

Reproduction Processes
Reproduction is the process by which new organisms are formed. Reproduction processes may vary in animals according to their structure, habitat, and general nature. Animals may reproduce sexually or asexually. If reproduction takes place, a type of fertilization must take place, regardless to whether it involves one parent or two parents. A few forms of reproduction include fission, budding, regeneration, and fertilization of egg cells with sperm.
Organisms create young of their species by reproduction. This unit reviews asexual and sexual reproduction. Terms of mitosis and meiosis are discussed.

Plant growth and adaptation
There are two groups of plants. Vascular plants are plants containing tubes which carry food and water throughout the plant. Most plants are vascular. Non-vascular plants do not have tubes to carry food and water throughout the plant. Mosses are non-vascular.
All plants grow and adapt to their environment. These adaptations take the form of various structures and behaviors in the plant. We will learn how both vascular and non-vascular plants grow and adapt to their environment.

Plant Response
Behaviors in plants, like animals, depend on factors in the environment. Their behaviors often are controlled by hormones. They also respond to stimuli, such as light, gravity, and touch. These and other concepts of plant responses will be explored in this unit.

Seed Plants
The study of seed plants will help students to gain an understanding of various types of seeds and how they function to provide food for our society. There are two types of seed plants, gymnosperms and angiosperms. A seed plant is well developed and produces a seed as the product of reproduction. They contain reproductive organs and may reproduce by a process called pollination. They produce fruits (either covered or naked). Each seed plant has different techniques for seed transport and survival. Their life span may vary from short to extremely long depending upon their general nature. Seed plants are an excellent source of food and also supply us with other natural resources.

Nonseed Plants
This unit covers the characteristics of the main groups of nonseed plants including the algae, mosses, liverworts and ferns and the differences between vascular and nonvascular plants and gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Genetics and Heredity
Genetics gives us insight on why we behave and look a particular way. It tends to explain why we have certain desirable and undesirable traits. Genetics is a scientific approach to explaining cell transmission from one generation to the next. Genetics plays a major role in determining the color of the eyes, the amount of pigmentation in the skin, the body shape, bone structure, height, the life span, and the color of the hair. In fact, genetics helps to determe every one of our characteristics.
Heredity is the process of offspring having the traits of their parents. We will review the basic concepts of heredity, including traits, genes, and mutations.

The Simplest Organisms
The five kingdom classification system is explained in this unit. The traits and characteristics of kingdom Monera, including viruses and bacteria are identified.

Microorganisms and Fungi
This unit explains the classification of Protist. Characteristics and traits of protozoans, plant like protist, and slime molds are presented. Examples and activities of Fungi are identified along with a description of lichen.

Evolution
When did life originate? What evidence has been given to support the theories of life's beginning? Have organisms always appeared as they are today? We will learn to recognize changes that occurred in living things as the earth matured. Fossils of the past serve as an indicator that changes have indeed occurred since the beginning of the earth. Many changes have taken place in the geological structure of the earth, and life changed in order to adapt to them. Extinction, adaptation and survival techniques have aided in the evolution of living things.

The Environment
Biotic and abiotic factors in the biosphere and the roles of producers and consumers in the ecosystems are presented. Symbiotic relationships are described and the causes of pollution in water, in air, and on land are identified.

Geologic Time
A review of the history of the earth and how fossils are used in the dating of the earth. The geologic time scale is introduced, along with the major life forms found in each geologic era.
Through the study of fossils and the layers of the earth, scientists have been able to discover much about how life evolved on the earth. As a result of this study, earth's history can be divided into ages. Much has been learned about the life and environment of these ages by examining the fossil remains. This unit reviews the ages of the earth and some of plant and animal life from each age.

Fossils
Humans are able to use fossils as a source of information about once-living organisms and the times in which they lived. Fossils provide clues about the structure, the function, and sometimes the behavior of a once-living organism.
We will focus on the types of fossils and how they can be used to find out about the past.

Change Through Time
Scientists have discovered through the study of fossils that changes in life on the earth occurred in the past. They have also discovered that certain traits or adaptations have aided in the survival of species and other traits may have caused some species to become extinct.
We will discuss some of the physical characteristics that help animals adapt to their environment, what instincts are, and how they help animals survive, why some animals hibernate, and how animals learn new behaviors. The following terms are introduced: behavior, adaptation, protective coloration, selective breeding, migration, and hibernation.

Extinction
Animals that are unable to adapt to changes in their environment will not survive. If the environment continues to change and the species does not adapt, that species will become extinct. This unit reviews reasons why organisms have become extinct, specific examples of extinct species, and circumstances which endanger species of today.

Ecology and the Environment
Ecology is a scientific study of environmental changes. Changes can be either natural or manmade. Natural changes are those which we cannot control; manmade changes are things we do ourselves that have an effect on the environment. Environmental changes influence population growth, rate of succession, climatic conditions, and adaptation process. Our environment includes ourselves and everything around us.

Biomes
Climate is an important factor in the lives of organisms because it affects the way organisms live and what they eat. Similar climates and communities are found around the world. Scientists group these areas, known as ecosystems, into larger groups called biomes.
Emphasis will be given to the make-up of an ecosystem. Members and functions of ecosystems will be reviewed.

Ecosystems
All living things in a place interact with their environment to form an ecosystem. Scientists have learned that anything which affects one aspect of the ecosystem affects the rest it. This unit reviews the basic terminology of ecosystems. Community, population, predator, prey,

Energy in the Ecosystem
All living things need energy to carry on their life processes. For plants, this energy is produced within the plant itself using water, carbon dioxide, and energy from the sun. All other organisms get their energy from the environment. This makes plants the basis for all energy. This unit reviews the process of energy moving through the ecosystem. Food chain, food web, energy pyramid, producer, consumer, and decomposer are some of the terms which will be discussed.

Ecosystem Cycles
Organisms in the environment depend on other organisms for food. They also depend on non-living things in the environment. Water, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen are all needed by living things. This unit reviews how they are provided to the ecosystem through their own cycles.

Human Body - Nutrition and Digestion
A description of the structures and functions of the human digestive system and information on nutrients, the four basic food groups, and the importance of a balanced diet will be studied.

Support and Movement
This unit describes the organization of the human body and emphasizes the structures and functions of the human skeleton and muscular systems.

Heart and Circulation
The structure and function of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries and the circulation of the blood is presented in this unit. Systemic, pulmonary, and coronary circulations are discussed. The composition and function of the blood is explained.

Respiration and Excretion
The structures and function of the respiratory and excretory systems are described. A description of the skin and the role it plays in excretion of waste is included.

Nervous System
We will explore the importance and functions of the nervous system, how the brain operates, and some conditions that can affect the nervous system, the main parts of the nervous system and their functions and operation.

Endocrine System
The endocrine system is the system of glands which produce hormones that regulate the body's functions. The pituitary gland, often called the master gland, regulates the functions of all glands. Other glands include the thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, testes and ovaries. This unit reviews the glands and their functions.

Growth
As humans grow, they develop through stages of development which are similar from person to person. This unit reviews the stages of growth and their characteristics.

Disease
Diseases are either communicable or non-communicable. Communicable diseases are caused by pathogens and can be passed from one person to another. Non-communicable diseases are not passed from person to person. This unit reviews diseases and their causes, including both communicable and noncommunicable diseases, and their causes.
Disease caused by microorganisms will be studied. We will also study the body's natural defenses, vaccinations, acquired immunity, and ways of preventing and treating disease.
Drugs
Drugs are chemicals that have effects of people's bodies. If used correctly they can be used to improve a person's health. If they are abused they can cause serious harm to the body. We will discuss the effects of stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and marijuana.