CULINARY INFO
Food

The following is a brief description of various techniques used in the kitchen along with some of the science behind them. By understanding the why and wherefores of the techniques, it is hoped practicing them will be easier.

I initially thought of linking all these areas so as to make easily accessible, but due to the endless amount of information I decided against it for now. If you want specific information and cannot be bothered to look through the whole document, may I suggest you use the 'search within this document' feature, that can be found on your browser.

BAIN MARIE
Although a water bath or bain-marie can mean several different things in the kitchen, for this particular technique it refers to a water bath used to safeguard delicate items such as custards and terrines as they cook in an oven.

• Place a deep pan large enough to hold the baking dish or dishes comfortably on an oven rack.
• Add the baking dish(es).
• Pour in enough boiling water to come halfway up the side of the dish.
• The boiling water is poured in after the baking dish has been placed in the oven to avoid scalding spills.
• Adjust the oven temperature as necessary to keep the water temperature between 82ºC and 88ºC.

BAVAROIS (Bavarian cream)
This delicate dessert cream is made by adding gelatine to a vanilla sauce, and then lightening the mixture with whipped cream and beaten egg whites. It may be combined with additional flavourings such as chocolate, liqueurs, or fruit, and used on its own or as a filling for a variety of pastries, tortes, pies and cakes.

• Combine the milk or cream and half the sugar and bring to a boil. Whisk together the eggs and
• the remaining sugar.
• Temper the egg mixture by slowly adding half the hot milk to it while constantly stirring.
• Stir the tempered egg mixture into the remaining hot milk, and continue to cook over medium heat, stirring constantly, until the mixture thickens slightly and coats the back of a spoon.
• Place the gelatine sheets in warm water to soften.
• Remove the gelatine sheets from the water and squeeze dry. Add to the warm egg mixture and
• stir until the gelatine is fully melted.
• Place the saucepan in an ice bath and cool the mixture to room temperature - about 70ºF (21ºC).
• (If the mixture cools below this temperature, the gelatine will begin to set and will not fold smoothly into the whipped cream)
• Whip the cream to medium peaks and fold it into the gelatine mixture. If whipped egg whites are also being incorporated, fold them into the sauce alternately with any desired flavouring.
• Use as directed to fill cakes, or mould and chill.

• Allow the butter to soften until pliable.
• Add the flour and, using a wooden spoon, work to a smooth paste. (An electric mixer may be used for larger quantities.)
• Add to the stew or sauce gradually in small pieces, stirring after each addition, and cook until the mixture is thickened or is the consistency you desire.

• The crushed seafood shells are sweated in butter. The shells are responsible for developing the flavour of a good bisque, so it is important that they be cooked until they turn a deep red or pink.
• Vegetables, like onions, garlic, shallots, leeks, and herbs are added to the shells. It can take anywhere from 20 to 30 minutes to properly cook these aromatics.
• Add the tomato paste and cook until it takes on a deep rust colour. This process, known as the malliard reaction, cooks the acidity and excessive sweetness out of the tomato paste so it will contribute a deep rich flavour, otherwise it would taste raw and unbalanced.
• Add the brandy and flambé. (Flambéing the brandy will quickly reduce it and burn off the raw alcohol, leaving behind the brandy's flavour essence. (To flambé is culinary technique that occurs by rinsing a hot pan with alcohol like that found in brandy. Turn the flame off when adding alcohol. Afterwards turn the flame back on and tip the edge of the pan to the flame to ignite the alcohol.)
• Add the liquid and additional appropriate ingredients and bring the soup to a simmer. Stock, fumet or velouté are all addition possibilities.
• Simmer the bisque until it is well flavoured and has a good consistency. Taste the soup as it simmers and remove the sachet or bouquet when the best flavour has been achieved. Bisques take an average of 1 hour to cook properly. As with any soup, they should be skimmed regularly and monitored to prevent the starches from scorching on the bottom of the pot.
• Strain and purée the soup to a velvety finish.
• A finished bisque should have about the same thickness as cream soup and is usually garnished with small pieces of the appropriate shellfish or a combination of shellfish. A dash of sherry may also be added at the last moment.

Tally's tips:
Although not very common today, the traditional method for finishing a shellfish bisque was to strain all the solids from the soup, and blend them into a smooth paste, including the shells. This mixture was added back into the bisque, a little at a time, to reach the proper consistency. The bisque was strained, one more time, through a cheesecloth-lined sieve, before serving.
A bouquet garni will add depth of flavour.
A variety of thickeners are used in bisques, from the traditional rice, to roux* and even bits of bread or biscuit.
Bouquet garni are herb and spice bundles used to flavour soups, broths and stews.
Roux is a mixture of flour and fat used to thicken soups and sauces.

BLANCHING
Blanching foods cooks them just long enough (in boiling water or oil) to set their colours or texture, and makes them easy to peel. It's sometimes easier to blanch certain vegetables (also called parboiling) before actually cooking them if you want to prepare them in advance.

• Bring a pot of water to a boil.
• Prepare the item, trimming, scoring, washing, or drying, as necessary.
• Drop the item in the hot liquid just until it brightens, the skin blisters, or to the appropriate desired amount of cooking is achieved
• Remove with a spider, strainer, or tongs, and allow to cool, or plunge in an ice bath to refresh and stop the cooking process.

BRAISING
Braising, considered a moist-heat cooking method, it helps tenderise food and keep it juicy, reducing the need for extra fat. Braising is perfect for less tender cuts of meats. Foods are usually seared or pan-browned in a small amount of fat. A minimal amount of liquid is then added to the pan to cover the food, and it is either oven-baked slowly or gently simmered on a stove top until moist and tender. The liquid can then be used to produce a sauce to serve with the braised item.

• If braising meats, start by sealing the meat in hot oil until it turns a nice brown colour. This initial sealing helps the meat develop colour, and adds flavour as well.
• Remove the meat and add *mirepoix to the pan, lightly brown or sweat the mirepoix. The mirepoix contributes both moisture and flavour to the meat and its cooking liquid.
• Return the meat to the pan on the bed of the properly cooked mirepoix.
• Using a well - flavoured stock that complements the flavour of the meat, add the appropriate amount of liquid needed.
• If braising whole vegetables such as chicory, follow instructions from here onwards
• In general, the liquid should cover the food by one-third.
• Bring the liquid to a simmer over direct heat, cover the pot and place it in a moderate oven.
• Herbs and spices, in the form of a bouquet garni, may be added during the braising process.
• Remove the lid during the final portion of the cooking time. This will cause the braising liquid to reduce adequately so that the sauce will have a nice consistency and flavour.
• Remove the food from the braising liquid when it is fork-tender.
• Place the pot over direct heat and continue to reduce the sauce so that it develops flavour, body, and consistency.
• Strain the sauce and correct

• Rinse the bones if necessary and dry them well to remove any excess moisture.
• Heat a roasting pan with some oil in it in a hot oven and add the bones in an even layer.
• Roast the bones until they are a rich brown colour.
• When the bones are roasted, remove them using a slotted spoon to a stock pot. Reserve and use the fat from the roasting pan to sauté the mirepoix until lightly browned.
• Add tomato paste at this stage if desired to the mirepoix and sauté, stirring constantly, over low heat until the paste turns a deep red or browns (malliard reaction)
• Remove the mirepoix and tomato paste mixture to the stock pot.
• Bring to the boil slowly and skim off any scum that comes to the surface, do this throughout the cooking process. If allowed to return the stock this scum will adversely effect the clarity and flavour of the stock
• Simmer gently for 4-6 hours

Tally's tip:
Deglaze the roasting pan to capture any browned meat bits and caramelised meat juices to add into the stock. Many recipes for stocks state a 6-8 hour simmering time, for this authors point of view simmering for a lesser time gives a fresh tasting finish and any longer than 6 hours results in a stale dead flavour.

CARAMELISING
This is the process of browning sugar in the presence of heat. The temperature range in which sugar caramelises is approximately 320 to 360ºF (160-182ºC). Browning vegetables slowly either over direct heat, or in the oven is a form of caramelisation that sweetens and deepens the flavour of the item.

• Caramelising sugar over direct heat is fast, but must be monitored and stirred to achieve even results. To slow the process, add a touch of acid, either lemon juice, or cream of tartar. Once the sugar starts to brown, it changes colours and flavours very rapidly. Remove from heat as soon as the desired level of caramelisation is reached. Over-caramelised sugar, though not necessarily burned, becomes bitter.
• Caramelising vegetables can take place on the stove top or in the oven, with or without the addition of granulated sugar, depending upon the desired results. Keep the heat hot enough to brown the natural sugars in the item, usually a medium-high flame, or a 375ºF (190ºC) oven. Stir or flip the item only after the desired colour has been reached on one side.

• Caul fat often comes frozen and needs to be under refrigeration. If fresh, it is easiest to work with if held in warm water.
• Remove and untangle a length of fat, spreading it flat on a clean work surface.
• Trim any large fat deposits, or areas where the fat bunches up excessively, preserving the fat in unbroken sheets as much as possible.
• Measure or estimate the size needed and trim away, or portion the sheets of fat as needed.
• Wrap the item gently with the sheet of fat, overlapping at the seam, then turning the item over to rest upon and hold the seam shut.
• The heavy, visible seams of fat will melt away when the item is cooking, moisturising the item while leaving a transparent, flavourless, and nearly undetectable casing in place.

Tally's Tips:
Wrap items in a thin layer of the fat to insure just the right amount of basting. When searing or roasting items wrapped in caul fat, cook the items slowly and gently, to keep the fat from shrinking too fast and breaking apart.

CHIFFONADE
Similar to shredding, the term chiffonnade refers to a type of knife cut that is used for leafy vegetables and herbs. The result of this cut is a finely shredded food item that may be used as a garnish, or bed, upon which another food item may be placed.

• When cutting tight heads of greens, such as Belgian endive or head cabbage, core the head and if it is large, cut it in half, to make cutting easier. For greens with large, loose leaves, roll individual leaves into tight cylinders before cutting. For smaller leaves, stack several leaves on top of one another.
• Using a razor-sharp chef's knife to make very fine, parallel cuts to produce fine shreds, defines the actual chiffonnade cut.

CHOUX PASTRY
When properly prepared, pâté à choux will expand during baking, creating a delicate shell with an essentially hollow centre. Pâté à choux is soft enough so that you can use a pastry bag to pipe it into different shapes. Among the most common shapes are cream puffs, profiteroles, and éclairs.

• Bring the water and butter to a full boil. Add the flour all at once and cook it until the mixture pulls away from the pan, forming a ball. Remove it from the heat.
• Place the dough in the bowl or a mixer. Using a wooden spoon or the paddle attachment, mix the dough for a few minutes, allowing it to cool slightly.
• Add the eggs gradually, in three or four additions, mixing the dough until it is smooth each time. Scrape down the sides and bottom of the bowl until all of the eggs are incorporated.
• The dough is now ready to use. Pipe the dough into desired shapes, onto sheet pans lined with parchment paper.
• Begin the baking process at a high temperature, 190º to 205ºC. Reduce the heat 121ºC once the pâté à choux begins to take on colour. Continue to bake until they turn golden brown and there are no visible beads of moisture on the surface.

CLARIFYING BUTTER
Simply put, clarified butter is pure butterfat. By clarifying butter, it will allow you to cook with butter at higher temperatures than would be possible with whole butter. Although the butter may be clarified, it still retains some butter flavour and has a high smoking point thus making it an excellent medium for sauteing.

• Melt the butter over a hot water bath or bain marie.
• Continue to cook over low heat. A layer of foam will rise to the top. Use a kitchen spoon or ladle to skim this away.
• The butterfat will become translucent indicating that the butter is now clarified.
• Pour or ladle off the clarified butter through cheesecloth into another container, taking care to leave the unwanted white milk solids at the bottom of the pot.

CONCASSE TOMATOES
The true definition of concassé is to pound or chop coarsely. In this technique, we are using it to describe tomatoes that have been peeled, seeded and chopped. Sometimes used to liven up soups or sauces, concasséd tomatoes also work well as a garnish.

• Bring a pot of water to a rolling boil and assemble an ice bath.
• Cut an "X" into the bottom of the tomato and cut out the stem.
• Gently submerge the tomatoes into the boiling water. After 10 to 30 seconds, depending on the tomatoes' age and ripeness, remove them with a slotted spoon and plunge immediately into the ice bath.
• Remove from the water when cool but don't let them stay in the ice bath too long as you will lose some nutritional value of the tomato.
• Peel off the skin. Cut the tomatoes across the middle into equal halves, and gently squeeze out the seeds. Dice or julienne cut the flesh, as desired.

CONSOMME
Consommés are clear, rich soups that are amber to brown in colour, and have good body. They are made by simmering broth or stock with a combination of ingredients intended to clarify the liquid. The combination of ingredients in the clarification--lean meat, egg whites, tomatoes, wine, aromatic vegetables, and herbs--removes particles suspended in the broth. The raft refers to the solid mass of ingredients that form on the top.

• Blend the ingredients for the clarification and add the broth. Mix all ingredients thoroughly.
• Bring the mixture slowly to a low simmer, stirring frequently. Be sure to scrape the bottom of the pan to prevent scorching. Once the raft begins to form, stop stirring.
• Once the raft has formed simmer for 45 minutes, or until the appropriate flavour and clarity is achieved. While the consommé is simmering, baste the raft occasionally, making sure to disturb the raft as little as possible in the process.
• Strain the finished consommé carefully through a bouillon strainer or rinsed cheesecloth. Adjust the seasoning at this point

Tally's Tips:
Break a hole in the raft just large enough to get a ladle through. Baste the top of the raft with the liquid, an even better method is to poke several very small holes through the raft. This allows the liquid to "percolate" over the top of the raft. Basting the raft prevents it from remaining uncooked and releasing raw protein into the consommé while straining it. If this happens, what looks like snow flakes will appear in the finished consommé when it is later heated.

CREAM SOUPS
Classically, cream soups are based on a béchamel sauce-milk thickened with roux-then finished with heavy cream. Whereas, a velouté soup is based on a light velouté sauce-a stock thickened with a roux-and finished with a liaison of heavy cream and egg yolks. Contemporary recipes simply combine the two.

• Prepare the main flavour ingredients by chopping them into a relatively uniform size so that they will cook evenly.
• Sweat the aromatic vegetables and the main flavour ingredients gently over low heat in a small amount of oil, butter or stock, without browning. Allow at least 20 minutes, so the vegetables release their full flavour. Add the liquid base for the soup (either a béchamel or velouté) and bring to a simmer.
• Add the additional ingredients at appropriate intervals. This will depend on their individual cooking requirements, for example, tender new peas will become grey and pasty if allowed to cook for too long.
• Simmer the soup gently until it has developed the appropriate flavour, body, and texture. Skim the surface as needed, and stir to avoid scorching.
• Strain the solids from the soup, re-boil and correct
• Finish the soup with heated heavy cream. Add just enough to give the soup a velvety texture and delicate flavour.
• Cream soups may also be served cold. In this case, they should be properly cooled, then finished with cold cream. Season and garnish the soup appropriately or properly cool and store.

DEEP-FRYING
For this technique, foods are cooked by being completely submerged in hot fat. As with other dry heat cooking methods that use cooking fats and oils, the foods must be naturally tender and of a shape and size that allows them to cook quickly without becoming tough and dry. The enemies of fat are those things that contribute to its breakdown and destroy its ability to fry quickly, cleanly, and evenly at a consistent temperature. These include salt, moisture, too high temperatures, and lack of skimming and straining of the heated fat.

• Assemble the following equipment necessary for preparation and service: frying kettle or friture, basket, spider, skimmer, tongs, container for blotting or draining, container to finish in the oven or hold warm, and serving plates.
• The cooking oil that you choose to use must be able to reach a high temperature without smoking or breaking down. For deep-fat frying, the ideal oil is one with a neutral flavour and colour, and a high smoking point 218ºC
• Place your food items directly into the hot cooking oil.
• When foods are added to hot oil, the oil will drop in temperature for a brief time. The more food added, the lower the temperature will drop and the longer it will take to come back to the proper level. This is called "recovery" time. Fry foods in small batches to avoid an extended recovery time, which produces oil-logged items.
• Cook foods to the proper colour and requirement.
• Foods that are properly fried may rise to the surface, indicating that they are fully cooked, or you may rely upon their appearance.
• A properly deep-fried food's texture is moist and tender on the interior, with a crisp, delicate crust.
• If it is necessary, some foods, such as chicken pieces may be partially cooked in the fryer, then finished on a rack in the oven.
• Use wire racks or paper towels to drain and blot fried foods.
• Fried foods are at their highest quality for a very short time.
• Serve fried foods at once, very hot.

DEGLAZING
Deglazing a pan releases the "fond" or reduced drippings that accumulate on the surface of a sauté or roasting pan during the cooking of meat or vegetables on high heat.

• Wines, cognac, water or broths can be used for this purpose. Choose a liquid that enhances the flavour of the dish you are making.Remove the main item. Keeping the pan over high heat, add enough liquid to cover the bottom of the pan.
• It is important to note that deglazing with alcoholic beverages can be dangerous. Remove the pan from open flame before deglazing with them.
• Using a wooden spoon, scrape up and dissolve all the sediment, swirling the pan and reducing the liquid at the same time. Fortified wines should not be used for this purpose since their flavours are best when not allowed to reduce.

NB : Sediment describes the brown meat bits and caramelised meat juices leftover from searing, sauteing, or roasting meat or fish.

DUXELLES
Duxelles is a mixture of finely chopped and sautéed mushrooms which also includes shallots and white wine. Duxelles may be sautéed dry, or of a sauce consistency. Used for flavouring, stuffing, or coating, it should be moist enough to hold together, but not runny.

• Heat butter in a small sauté pan.
• Add the shallots and sweat.
• Add the mushrooms to the pan and cook until they are softened and moist for a regular duxelles, or browned with most of the liquid evaporated for a dry duxelles.
• Add parsley, salt and pepper to taste.

EN PAPILLOTE
This variation of the steaming method, in which the main item and accompanying ingredients are encased in parchment paper and baked in the oven, employs the steam created by the ingredient's natural juices to cook the food.

• Cut the parchment paper into a heart shape large enough to allow the food and any additional ingredients to fit comfortably without overcrowding. The paper needs to have enough extra room to expand during cooking.
• Oil or butter the paper on both sides to prevent it from burning.
• Place a bed of aromatics, vegetables, or sauce on one half of the heart and top it with the main item.
• Fold the empty half of the heart over the main item and fold and crimp the edges of the paper to form a tight seal.
• Place the packet on a pre-heated sizzler platter and then into a very hot oven. The oven temperature must be carefully monitored, since delicate foods can be overcooked quickly at high temperatures.
• Foods prepared en papillote should be cooked until they are just done. This is difficult to gauge without experience, since you cannot apply senses of sight and touch. If the item has been cut to the correct size or if it has been partially cooked before being placed en papillote, it should be done when the bag is very puffy and the paper is brown.

FOAMING METHOD
Two examples of the best use of the foaming method are sponge cakes and angel food cakes. By beating whole eggs, yolks, or whites, you produce a thick foam. As you bake the cake, this foam expands, creating a very light and delicate finished product.

• In a bowl, combine the eggs (yolks, whites, or whole) with the sugar. Place the bowl over a hot water bath and whisk until the temperature reaches 38ºC. (This is done to dissolve the sugar, increase the volume, and develop a finer grain. For angel food and chiffon cakes, especially those made with only egg whites, this stage may be omitted. Instead, the egg whites are whipped at room temperature into a thick foam, gradually incorporating the sugar.)
• Remove the mixture from the heat and beat it with the whip attachment until the eggs form a stable foam that has tripled in volume. Mixing time is generally 15 minutes on third speed plus five minutes on second speed. The mixture should form a ribbon as it falls from the whip.
• Gently fold in the sifted dry ingredients. This can be done by hand using a spatula or whisk, or at a low speed using the whip attachment. (Do not overwork the batter at this point as the foam could start to deflate resulting in a flat, dense product.)
• Add any flavourings or additional ingredients at this point.( If butter or chocolate is required, it should be melted and slightly cooled. Add it after the dry ingredients have been properly incorporated. These ingredients should be warm enough to liquefy, to ensure that they are evenly distributed throughout the batter.
• Immediately pour the batter into prepared pans and place into a preheated oven. Bake until the surface springs back when lightly pressed with a fingertip and the cake has begun to shrink from the sides of the pan.
• Remove the cake from the oven and let cool. Some cakes should be allowed to remain in the pan as they cool to help them retain their form once they are unmoulded. Others need to be removed from the pans right away and allowed to cool on cooling racks. Follow recipe instructions for proper cooling procedure.

FOLDING FOAMS INTO A BASE
Soufflés, mousses, and sponge cakes are examples of dishes with the light, delicate texture that results from folding a beaten foam (egg whites or heavy cream) into a base. The base may be a pastry cream or heavy béchamel, a purée of savoury or sweet ingredients, or even another foam.

• Put the base appareil (an appareil is a culinary term for a prepared mixture of ingredients used alone or as an ingredient in another preparation) .in a large bowl to accommodate the folding motion. Allow it to reach room temperature and stir or beat this mixture to soften it, especially if it has been refrigerated for any length of time.
• Add about one-third of the beaten foam and fold it into the base using a circular motion, going from the side to the bottom of the bowl and back up to the surface.
• Add the remaining foam to the base in one or two stages and use the same folding motion just until blended.

FORCEMEAT
Straight forcemeat is a basic forcemeat that can be used to prepare a variety of items, including sausages, pâtés, terrines, and galantines.

• Have all ingredients and equipment at the correct temperature, under 4ºC.
• Combine the main meat item, fat and, if appropriate, garnish ingredients with a marinade and refrigerate them.
• Marinating the meat and fat will impart another layer of flavour to the finished product.
• Run the meat and fat through the meat grinder, using a die with large openings to produce a coarse grind. The degree of fineness of the finished forcemeat is determined by the number of successive grindings, and smaller dies.
• Hold the ingredients over ice or refrigerate them between grindings, chilling the grinder parts as well.
• Place 1/3 of the ground meat in a chilled food processor and add the panada or binder. Process the mixture to a smooth consistency if desired, add the rest of the meat, processing the entire batch to the recipe specifications.
• Though this final "grinding" is not always essential, it gives the final product a smooth texture and helps bind it for slicing.
• Test the forcemeat's texture and flavour by poaching a small amount of the forcemeat or quenelle, then make any necessary adjustments to correct the consistency and seasoning.
• Gently fold the garnish into the forcemeat by hand, working over ice. Proceed with the recipe, or as desired.

FORCEMEAT - COUNTRY-STYLE
This rather coarse-textured forcemeat is traditionally made from pork and pork fat with a percentage of liver and other garnish ingredients.

• Prepare all meats, fat, and garnish ingredients as indicated by the recipe. Cut the meats and fats into dice or strips. Marinate the ingredients if desired or appropriate. Keep them chilled at all times.
• Have all ingredients and equipment very cold, under 40ºF/4ºC. This is especially important when grinding or incorporating fat into meat; to keep it from breaking down.
• Grind the meats once through a coarse die, and again through a medium die. Hold, the ground mixture over ice or refrigerate, keeping the chilled temperature, of the mixture, constant. If necessary, refrigerate periodically, to keep the mixture adequately chilled.
• Push the liver through a sieve (tamis) to remove the sinew, membrane, and fibre.
• Gently work the sieved liver and panada into the ground meats and fat by hand. Keep the mixture on ice at all times. (Panada is a binder, usually made of bread, rice, flour, milk or egg. Panada is used as a stabiliser, to keep the proper consistency of sausage or forcemeat during the cooking process.)
• Prepare a test quenelle to check consistency and seasoning. Adjust or correct if needed.
• Any garnish should be folded in after the adjustments have been made on the forcemeat itself. Proceed with the recipe, or use the forcemeat as desired.

GELATINE
When added in the desired ratio or "strength," gelatine can produce an array of textures, from light, delicate foams that retain their shape and can be sliced, to chaud-froid, or stiff coating gel used in decorative cold-food preparations. Gelatine is available in powder form or in sheets. Before use, gelatine must first be softened in liquid, this is called "blooming."

• Measure the gelatine by weight, then sprinkle it on the surface of the cool liquid to be thickened. The gelatine will float on the top, and "bloom," or absorb moisture, expanding the granules.
• If using sheets, immerse them fully in the liquid. This should take about 10 minutes.
• In order to fully dissolve the gelatine, heat the liquid gently over a water bath, and mix, dispersing it equally throughout the liquid, gelatine scorches easily, so never dissolve gelatine over direct heat.
• The protein in the gelatine will cause the liquid to set as it cools. Therefore, proceed with the recipe as directed in a timely manner, especially when working with bavarois or mousses.

GRAV LAX
Grav lax is made by curing fresh, uncooked salmon in a sugar, salt, white peppercorn, and dill mixture for overnight or for several days. Dry cure is culinary preparation based on salt for curing meats. The salt can be mixed with other flavouring like sugar and garlic and sometimes preservatives like tinted cure mix.

• Remove all bones from the fillet with the use of a pair of pliers
• Brush trimmed salmon fillets with a marinade of lemon juice, brandy and olive oil
• Pack the fillets with the dry-cure and herb mixture and wrap them tightly in cheesecloth, place on a tray or similar
• Allow the salmon to cure for several hours or overnight.
• Drain away the liquid that has accumulated in the pan.
• Unwrap the salmon and scrape away the cure and rinse lightly
• The key to the best possible presentation is to slice the salmon very thinly, cutting on the bias and working from the "tail' to the "head."

HOLLANDAISE (traditional)
This temporary emulsion sauce is formed when one substance is suspended in another. It is fragile because it is not a true mixture and could "break," or separate into its distinct ingredients.

• Gather all ingredients to have everything ready so you can focus on making the sauce.
• Melt the butter and hold it at blood temperature
• In a slopped sided sauce pot combine the vinegar, pepper, and lemon juice. Bring the mixture to boil and reduce by half the original volume.
• Transfer the reduction to a stainless steel bowl (aluminium may tint the colour of the hollandaise).
• Add remaining water and yolks to the sauce pot; whisk to combine.
• Whisk the yolks, over a bain marie, until they form sauce like ribbons. Remove pan from heat and continue stirring to cool the mixture. (If the heat is too high curds will form, overcooking the yolks.)
• To incorporate the butter hold the pot steady using a side towel. Gradually whisk the warm melted butter into the yolk mixture. ( This should be a quick process as not let the yolk mixture cool past 120º.)
• If the sauce becomes thick while adding the butter, whisk in few drops of hot water to thin to the right consistency. ( the sauce should change from being shiny to flat in colour.)
• Hold finished sauce warm over a bain marie
• Adjust seasoning of the sauce as desired. The finished sauce should be light and not too thick. The sauce should coat evenly.

SAUCE HOLLANDAISE (modern)

• The ratio is 50 gm of clarified butter per egg yolk
• Set a bowl with the egg yolks and water or wine over a bain marie
• Whisk until they are thickened and frothy. The egg yolks should be warm, but not hot enough to scramble, increasing in volume as they cook. If they seem to be getting too hot and begin coagulating around the edges of the bowl, remove the bowl or entire pot set up from the heat. Continue whipping to cool the mixture. Be sure the water is only simmering, not boiling.
• When the egg yolks have doubled in volume, remove them from the hot water bath. Set the bowl on a folded towel and begin adding the butter gradually in a thin stream, whipping constantly.
• The butter and eggs should be at about the same temperature. The sauce will begin to thicken as the butter is added and the emulsion is formed.
• When all the butter is added, the sauce should be at a ribbony consistency, add a reduction or lemon juice, season with salt and a little cayenne pepper. The sauce may also be strained through cheesecloth.
• Hold the sauce at around 160ºF/ 70ºC. This sauce is particularly susceptible to food-borne illness and should be held in a sanitised container. A stainless steel bain-marie or vacuum bottle are good choices.
• Hollandaise should never be held for more than 2 to 3 hours.

Tally's tips:
If the mixture breaks, it may be fixable: by removing it from the heat, adding a little cold water and whipping to reduce the temperature.
Placing a little boiling water in a bowl and whisking in the split mixture.
As a final option, make up a little sabayon and slowly whisk in the split mixture.

MIXING/KNEADING YEAST DOUGH
Proper kneading is essential to the full development of a good yeast dough. If you knead the dough too long it will begin to break down and get sticky. If you don't knead the dough enough, it will be tough and break apart easily. One thing to note when using dry yeast, it should be thoroughly blended with the other dry ingredients before you add any liquid.

• Blend the yeast with some or all of the liquid and mix until it is evenly blended. Instant dry yeast should be thoroughly blended with the dry ingredients before adding any liquid.
• Add all the remaining ingredients, except salt, to the yeast mixture. Once all the dry ingredients have been added,
• add the salt on top of them. This will prevent the salt from killing the yeast.
• Mix on low speed until the dough starts to "catch." It should look like a shaggy mass at this point. It may be necessary to stop and scrape down the bowl's sides and bottom once or twice so that the dough will mix evenly.
• Increase the mixing speed to medium and continue to knead until the dough develops a smooth appearance and feels springy when touched.
• Remove the dough to a clean, lightly-oiled bowl. Cover the dough with plastic wrap or a clean cloth and allow it rise. It is a good idea to take the temperature of the dough at this point so that you can make any necessary adjustments necessary for a slow rise. The ideal temperature is around 78ºF (26ºC). A slow rise will result in a better finished item.
• When the dough has risen sufficiently, punch it down. To test the dough to see if it has risen sufficiently, press your finger into the dough. The hole should remain visible, and the dough should not spring back into place. Punching down the dough expels carbon dioxide, evens out the temperature, and redistributes the yeast.
• Remove the dough to a prepared work surface. Cut into appropriate size pieces and shape them into rounds. Let the dough rise once more before shaping it into loaves or rolls.

Tally's Tip:
Proper kneading is essential to the full development of the gluten. Gluten is what provides the dough enough strength and elasticity to allow it to rise properly. If the dough is either under-kneaded or over-kneaded, the finished product will have a coarse texture, full of large tunnels and holes. Kneading is generally done directly in the mixing machine using a dough hook. Be sure to adhere to the recommended kneading times. Small batches my be kneaded by hand.

LEGUMES
Most beans, with a few notable exceptions (lentils, split peas and black-eyed peas), are easier to prepare, and produce a better quality finished dish if they are allowed to soak. The skins soften slightly, allowing for more rapid and even cooking.

• Rinse and sort beans to remove dirt, stones, and any mouldy legumes. There are two methods commonly used, the long- and the quick-soak method.
• For the long-soak method, place the rinsed and sorted legumes in a container and add enough cool water to cover them by a few inches. Let the beans soak for the suggested time period; this will vary depending on the bean, from 4
• to 24 hours.For the quick-soak method, place the rinsed and sorted legumes in a pot and add enough cool water to cover by a few inches. Bring the water to a simmer. Remove the pot from the heat and cover. Let the beans steep for 1 hour.
• Drain the beans and cook as directed in the recipe.

LIAISON
A mixture of cream and eggs, known as a liaison, is often the final addition to classically prepared velouté soups, blanquettes, and special sauces. Tempering a liaison prevents it from breaking or scrambling when you add it to a hot dish.

• Combine the ingredients for the liaison in a bowl and whip until smooth. Have your liquid at a simmer.
• Gradually add the hot liquid to the liaison, a ladleful at a time, stirring constantly. When enough hot liquid has been added to raise the temperature of the liaison, add it back to the pot.
• Return to gentle direct heat and bring the dish up to just below the boiling point. It should thicken slightly, giving the dish a rich, creamy texture.

LIQUID MARINADES
Originally marinades were intended to both preserve and tenderise tough cuts of meat. These intensely flavoured combinations of oils, acids, and aromatics were sometimes used to disguise the flavour of meats that had spoiled. In contemporary kitchens each ingredient plays a distinct role. Oils are used primarily to protect and preserve foods, either as they marinate or during cooking. Acids, such as vinegar, yogurt, wine, and citrus juices, add flavour and change the food's texture. In some cases the acid will make the foods firmer, in others it will break down the connective fibres, making foods seem more tender. Aromatics, such as spices, herbs and vegetables, add flavour. The ingredients should selected according to the marinade's intended use.

• Prepare the items to be marinated and place them in a pan large enough to hold them comfortably. There should be enough room for the marinade as well.
• Add the marinade and turn the items until they are evenly coated. Marinate them for the length of time required by
• the recipe, type of food, or desired result.

Tally's Tip:
Large food storage bags or freezer bags work well for saving space and keeping items completely covered in marinade and kept in the refrigerator.

MALLIARD REACTION
Named aftyer the man who first described the process. The malliard reaction is the process by which tomato products are allowed to "cook out"; the colour will turn from a bright red to a rusty brown, due to the caramelisation of the natural sugars. (see Pince also)

MONTE AU BEURRE
Finishing with butter, as monte au beurre translates, is a step that can be employed either on its own, or as a finishing step for fortified wine sauces or reduction sauces, ie beurre blanc.

• Dice cold, unsalted butter into small bits and keep chilled until needed.
• Once the sauce has been reduced to the appropriate consistency and all garnish and flavourings have been added, add a piece or two of butter and swirl the pan to emulsify and thicken the sauce.
• Keep the pan in motion the entire time that the butter is being added.
• The final addition of butter will give the sauce a slightly more opaque appearance as well as blending all its elements into one rich, harmonious flavour.

MOUSSELINE FORCEMEAT
Usually made from white meat, fish and shellfish, this light forcemeat is used to prepare a number of items, including quenelles, terrines, and stuffings.

• Chill all ingredients and utensils thoroughly. Dice the meat, hold it on ice until needed.
• Grind the meat to a paste in a cold food processor. If eggs are included, add them at this time, pulsing the machine on and off to incorporate into the meat. Do not overwork the mixture.
• With the machine running, add cold heavy cream in a thin stream to help blend the meat pieces into a fine purée. Remove the mousseline from the food processor bowl into a bowl set over ice water and stir in the rest of the cream, the forcemeat should be very smooth, but not rubbery. Add seasonings according to recipe or desired result.
• Push the forcemeat through a drum sieve with a rigid plastic scraper to remove any sinews and membranes that may remain. This will homogenise the texture. Work with only a small quantity of the forcemeat at a time, keeping the remainder over ice or refrigerated.
• To test the forcemeat's texture, quality, and flavour, poach a quenelle, then make any necessary adjustments to correct the consistency and seasoning.

OMELETS
According to Escoffier….."An omelet is really a special type of scrambled egg enclosed in a coating or envelope of coagulated egg and nothing else."

• While heating the pan, beat the eggs until they are evenly blended. Season to taste. Pour the eggs into the heated pan, keeping the eggs and the pan in motion constantly by shaking the pan and stirring the eggs so that soft curds form slowly.
• At the point that the eggs are almost fully scrambled, but still moist, stop stirring and allow a skin to form on the bottom. Add any fillings at this point, if desired.
• Release the eggs from the skillet by jarring the handle, and tilting the pan upward with the handle, knocking the
• omelet forward, so that it begins to roll onto itself.
• Roll the omelet out of the pan onto a heated plate.
• If desired, shape the omelet using a clean towel or napkin.
• Lightly "glaze" the omelet with butter for added sheen and flavour.

PANÉ
Panéing is a common way to prepare foods for frying. It gives your finished food item an even coating that's crisp, golden and delicate. For best results, be sure to let the breaded item rest a bit, before frying, so that the coating firms up a bit.

• Pat dry the food to be breaded, then hold it in one hand and dip it in flour. Shake off any excess flour, and transfer the item to the container of egg wash (a mixture of beaten eggs and milk or water).
• Switch hands, pick up the food and turn it if necessary to coat it on all sides. Transfer it to the container of breadcrumbs. Use your dry hand to pack bread crumbs evenly around the food. Shake off any excess, then transfer the food to a holding tray.
• Let the food rest under refrigeration for about 1 hour or longer before frying.
• Discard any unused flour, egg wash, or breadcrumbs. They will have been contaminated by uncooked juices or raw particles of the food you have been breading and can present a food safety hazard.

Tally's tip :
For a variation, shredded coconut, ground almonds etc could be used in place of breadcrumbs.

PASSING
Passing is critical to developing proper consistency. For the most delicate, finely-textured sauces, passing through cheesecloth is often recommended. Otherwise passing through a chinois is will give the required result. Passing is not to be confused with straining, passing requires forcing a major % of the solids through the chinois or cloth which adds to the consistency of the sauce/soup. Whereas straining means separating the liquid from the solid matter.

• Rinse cheesecloth in cool water, and then wring it out. Drape it over a bowl and pour the sauce into it.
• Two people, one working on either side of the bowl, should now gather up the cheesecloth, each twisting in the opposite direction.
• Continue to twist the ends until all the sauce has been wrung from the cheesecloth. Clean by rinsing the cheesecloth out, for later use, or discard.

PINCE (the malliard reaction)
This French term refers to caramelising an item, usually through sauteing, and often refers to a tomato product. Allowing the tomato product to "cook out" reduces any excessive sweetness, acidity, or bitterness, which might effect the finished sauce. It also encourages the development of a deep rich note that, while it should remain a subtle influence, still has a role to play in the sauce's overall flavour and aroma. The colour of a properly pincéed tomato product will turn from bright red to a rusty brown.

PASTA
Mixing Pasta Dough
Pasta dough can be mixed by hand or in a food processor with a blade, or a mixer with a dough hook. Whichever way you choose, reaching the proper consistency without over mixing the dough is the key to achieving a tender textured final product.

• Combine the flour(s) in a bowl, making a well in the centre, then add the eggs.
• Begin to pull the flour into the eggs, mixing with a fork.Add the salt to the dough.
• Continue to mix the dough until it forms a heavy, shaggy mass.
• If the dough is too dry at this point, add a little water to adjust the consistency.
• Gather the dough into a rough ball.
• Knead the dough on a lightly floured work surface. Scatter the dough with additional flour as necessary to keep it from sticking. Use the heel of your hand to push the dough away from you, then pull it back over itself with your fingertips.
• Continue to knead the dough until it becomes very smooth.
• When the dough appears to be fully kneaded, make a ball and cut it in half. The texture should appear completely homogenous and feel smooth and a little moist. Cover the dough and allow it to rest for 1 hour before rolling and shaping.

Filling pasta
By cutting and shaping fresh pasta differently, you can create a number of specialties.

• Roll dough for filled pasta thinner than you would for a noodle, as the layers will be doubled.
• Assemble the necessary ingredients and equipment. Beat an egg with some water or cream to create an egg wash for sealing the seams. The filling may be spooned in or put into a plain-tipped piping bag.
• If using a ravioli mould, cut the appropriate lengths. To cut the dough into squares or circles free-handed for other pasta shapes, a ruler and a pizza cutter make it easy to cut identical pieces.
• Place a very small amount, usually about a teaspoonful of filling, in the centre of each shape.
• Brush a light coating of egg wash around the edges, and gently fold the pasta in half, pressing firmly from one side of the edge to the other, pressing out air pockets and sealing the edges tightly. Any air pockets left are likely to blow out during cooking.
• Continue shaping pasta as desired.

Rolling Pasta
Pasta may be rolled by hand, but a pasta rolling machine greatly simplifies the task. Fresh pasta can be used to produce flat or "ribbon-style" pastas such as linguini or fettuccini, or it may be used to create ravioli, tortellini, and other filled pastas.

• Divide the prepared and kneaded pasta dough into manageable pieces. Open the machine's rollers to their widest setting. Roll the pasta through the machine.
• Lightly dust with flour if it feels moist or tacky. Fold the pasta sheet in thirds and roll it through the machine again.
• Fold and roll the pasta, setting the opening progressively smaller until the desired thickness is reached. The dough should be very smooth at this point.
• The properly rolled pasta is usually allowed to dry briefly, just until any tackiness disappears. Be careful not to let the pasta get too dry or it will crumple and not cut properly.
• Use the cutter attachment on your machine to cut flat pasta.
• If you are making a specialty pasta or if you don't have a cutter attachment, simply fold the pasta sheet as shown and use a sharp knife to make even parallel cuts.

Tally's Tip:
When rolling out pasta sheets, the dough should span the length of the rollers. This will give more uniformity when cutting or shaping, while creating less waste.

Cooking pasta
Pasta, like many other simple dishes, deserves the same attention to detail and technique as more complex recipes. Use plenty of water (8 litres per kg) and stop cooking the instant the pasta is properly cooked.

• Bring a large pot of water to a rolling boil. Add salt and a little oil
• Add the pasta and stir it with a kitchen fork to separate the strands. Cook the pasta until it is firm to the bite or "al dente". The only test for this is actually biting into a strand.
• Drain the pasta immediately into a colander, I prefer not to rinse it as the starch allows the sauce to cling to the pasta. It is now ready to be served with a sauce or other dressing of your choice.
• To hold pasta for later service, rinse it in cool water and allow it to drain well. Toss the pasta with a little oil to help keep the strands separated.

PATE DE CAMPAGNE
Paté de Campagne is made from a country-style forcemeat. Many traditional garnishes may be added including nuts, marinated meats, or dried fruits.

• Prepare the forcemeat of your choosing. Line the mould completely with thin slices of fatback. There should be a 2 to 3 inch overhang on all sides.
• Add the forcemeat to the lined mould and press it down with a spatula to remove any air pockets.
• Fold the overhanging fatback onto the top of the pâté to completely encase the forcemeat.
• Lay various herbs and spices over the top of the pâté, if desired. Bake the pâté, covered, in a shallow, 1-inch water bath in the oven.
• After the pâté has cooked to the correct internal temperature, allow it to cool to room temperature. Pour off all the fat and liquid that may have collected in the mould. Pour aspic jelly into the mould to fill it to the top. Chill the pâté completely before slicing.

PINCE (the malliard reaction)
This French term refers to caramelising an item, usually through sauteing, and often refers to a tomato product. (see malliard reaction).

  PILAF METHOD
The best pilafs are grain dishes that are light, fluffy, and relatively dry. Many kinds of grains can be cooked in this manner; just observe the correct ratio of grain to liquid.

• Select a sauce pan with a tight fitting lid for optimum results. Onions, or any other desired aromatic vegetables, are allowed to sauté slowly, in butter or oil, until sweet with aroma.
• While sauteing the vegetables, heat the liquid to be added in a separate pot, reducing the overall cooking time.
• The grain is then added and stirred until coated with oil.
• After the stock is combined with the rice and aromatics, the mixture is brought up to a simmer before the pot is covered .
• Cover with the lid and either reduce the heat to finish the pilaf on the stove top, or transfer to the oven to finish cooking.
• The pilaf is ready when it has absorbed all the liquid and the rice is tender.

Tally's Tip:
When working with freshly cooked rice, use a fork to gently loosen and fluff the grains. Add a small piece of butter to coat the grains for added flavour and appearance.

PASTRY BAGS AND TUBES
Pastry bags and tubes are important throughout the kitchen and may be used for a number of different applications such as whipped cream for sweet dishes, for making savoury butter rosettes or for filling tartlet and bavarois moulds.

• Select the desired tube and position it securely in the pastry bag's opening.
• Fold down the bag's top to create a cuff, then transfer your preparation to the bag with a spatula or spoon. Support the bag with your free hand while filling it.
• Unfold the bag's cuff, gather together, and twist the top of the bag. Press on the bag to expel air pockets. With one hand, press the ingredients out of the bag. Use your other hand to support and guide the bag. When your design is finished, release the pressure on the bag and gently twist the tip while lifting it cleanly away from your design.
• Remove the excess filling from the bag and wash it carefully with warm, soapy water after each use. Turn the bag inside out and wipe dry with absorbent towelling before storing it.

POACHING
Poaching is a cooking method in which foods are immersed in a flavourful liquid. Stock, broth, or court bouillon are all appropriate, depending on the type of food being poached and the desired results. Foods that are typically poached are usually tender, such as chicken, fish, and fruit.

• Prepare the poaching liquid by adding vinegar, flavours, sugar, spices, aromatics or herbs suitable for the item being poached.
• Bring the poaching liquid to the appropriate temperature for the item being poached, usually between 160º and 185ºF (70º and 82ºC). Gently lower the food into the poaching liquid, being sure it is completely submerged.
• Maintain the desired cooking speed throughout the poaching process. If a cover is used, the temperature must be closely monitored. Covering a pot creates pressure and raises the temperature of the poaching liquid.
• Skim the surface of the liquid throughout the cooking time. This will help the poached item to develop an appropriate and attractive colour, as well as keeping the broth from becoming too cloudy.
• Carefully remove the item to a holding container and moisten it with some of the poaching liquid to prevent it from drying out. Poached foods are cooked just until the food is set and a safe internal temperature is reached.

POACHING FRUIT
Fruits that poach well are usually naturally tender, but not so soft that they will dissolve in the poaching liquid. The liquid must be well flavoured. Simple syrup, mulled or spiced wine, and fruit juices are all appropriate depending on the type of fruit and the desired result. Poaching is done within the range of 70 to 82ºC. The surface of a poaching liquid should show some motion, sometimes call "shivering," but no air bubbles should break the surface.

• Combine the fruit to be poached with the liquid and bring to the correct cooking temperature. Dense fruits such as pears should be brought up to temperature along with the cooking liquid, to be sure that they are evenly and fully cooked. Be sure that the item is completely submerged in the liquid.
• Maintain the desired cooking temperature throughout the poaching process.
• Skim the surface of the liquid throughout cooking time. This will prevent the liquid from becoming cloudy.
• Check for doneness. Poached fruit should be cooked just until it is tender but still holds its shape. If the item is to be served cold it may be desirable to slightly undercook it, and cool it in the poaching liquid.
• If the item is to be held for later use, once the fruit has reached room temperature, the item and broth should be carefully cooled and stored.
• The poaching liquid is customarily used as the sauce, or as the base for a sauce to be served with the fruit.

POELEING
Sometimes known as "butter roasting," this technique is most often associated with white meats and game birds. Foods are liberally basted with butter then allowed to cook in their own juices, on a bed of aromatic vegetables and in a covered vessel.

• Sear the main item by cooking it on all sides in hot oil, just until the surface begins to turn colour. Remove the item and allow it to rest slightly.
• Sweat the vegetables in butter until the onions are translucent. (To sweat or smother refers to slow cooking of aromatic vegetables in butter or other fat, usually in a covered vessel, until soft and tender, without any browning.)
• Return the main item to the roasting pan and baste with additional butter, then cover and cook in the oven to the desired doneness. An instant read thermometer, warm skewer, or the clear colour of cavity juices can all be used to indicate the level of doneness. Because the food's surface is not browned as deeply as it would be in roasting, the flavour tends to be more delicate.
• Prepare the sauce as you would a pan gravy or jus, degreasing, deglazing and thickening with either flour or a starch.

PUREED SOUPS
Puréed soups are slightly thicker than cream soups and have a somewhat coarser texture. They are often based on dried peas, lentils, or beans, or on starchy vegetables such as potatoes, carrots, and squashes. The consistency should be such that it can be eaten easily from a spoon; the liquid is neither pastey nor runny, purée soups are thickened by the main ingredient.

• Slow stew the aromatic vegetables in either rendered fat, oil or butter, over low heat, until a rich aroma develops and they turn golden. This can take from 20 to 30 minutes.
• Add the liquid and any additional ingredients required at this point. Bring the soup to a gentle simmer. (Because most puréed soups are made from starchy ingredients, it is generally best to start them in a cool liquid. Legumes, potatoes, and squash should be added at the same time that the liquid base is added to the soup pot.
• Skim the soup throughout the cooking time, stirring frequently to prevent scorching. Carefully monitor the cooking time and temperature, adding more liquid if necessary.
• Add the remaining ingredients at the correct point and continue to simmer until all the ingredients are soft enough to purée easily. The bouquet garni should be added about 1 hour before the end of cooking time, and removed once the soup has extracted the right amount of flavour.
• Purée the soup, either in batches or in halves, according to the desired consistency, using a food mill, blender, food processor or immersion (stick) blender.

QUENELLES
Quenelles are poached dumplings made from forcemeat. Any forcemeat can and should be checked for flavour, texture, colour, and consistency by preparing a test quenelle. This is an excellent safeguard against producing sausages, terrines, or pâtés that have poor quality and taste. A mousseline forcemeat, shaped into quenelles and gently poached is often served as an appetiser or as a garnish for soups.

• Prepare the forcemeat and keep it chilled until it is time to poach the quenelles.
• Heat the poaching liquid to 65ºC. The liquid must not be at a rolling boil; this could cause the quenelles to rupture as they cook and would give a false impression of the forcemeat's quality. Even an excellent mousseline can become rubbery if improperly cooked.
• Shape the quenelles. There are many ways to do this. Using two spoons, they are first dipped in cold water; an appropriate amount of the forcemeat is scooped up with one of the spoons, and the second spoon is used to smooth and shape the mixture. The quenelle is pushed from the spoon into the poaching medium. Other shaping methods include using a ladle or piping the mixture through a plain-tipped pastry bag.
• Poach the quenelle. The cooking time will vary, depending on the diameter of the quenelle. They should be completely cooked through when cut open.
• When making a test quenelle, be sure to taste it at serving temperature. If the forcemeat is to be served cold, let the sample cool before tasting it. Make any adjustments to the forcemeat. If it has a rubbery or tough consistency, add a bit of heavy cream. Adjust the seasoning and flavouring ingredients as needed.

REDUCTIONS
Reducing or reduction is the process by which a liquid, such as stock, wine, heavy cream, soup or sauce, loses some of its original volume in order to concentrate its flavour. Liquids can be reduced in varying degrees, depending on how much liquid has been cooked off. For example, reducing by half means half of the liquid has been cooked off.

• Heat a small sauté pan over medium heat; add the vinegar, wine or other liquid to be reduced, then add the herbs or spices.
• Turn the heat up to high and swirl the liquid; it should boil rapidly initially, then turn the heat down so it simmers as it reduces. (If using vinegar or chillies, keep clear of the steam, as it will burn if inhaled.)
• Skim the reduction as it reduces to remove impurities.
• When the liquid has reduced to a syrup or to about a teaspoonful, continue as directed in the recipe for finishing the sauce, then strain your sauce for a fine, smooth finish.
• When reducing au sec, keep the heat very low near the end of cooking and watch the reduction carefully to prevent scorching.

Heavy pots are recommended, for reducing au sec (to dry), which means to reduce until nearly all of the liquid has evaporated. The more the water evaporates, the more the liquid is likely to scorch. When reducing a large amount of liquid, transfer it to a succession of smaller pots as it reduces. This prevents the build up of excessive caramelisation on the sides of the pot. That build up could impart bitter flavours if they were to get into the reduction.

RISOTTO
In order to make a successful risotto, its wise to pay careful attention to ratios between grain and liquid. To make the perfect risotto, liquid is added in increments as the risotto is stirred constantly so that each addition is fully absorbed by the rice. Short grain rice, such as arborio, has the best properties for preparing this creamy dish. Not to be confused with a pilaf, which should be drier in finish.

• Sweat the onions in a portion of butter or olive oil.
• Add the rice and mix it thoroughly with the butter. Cook it, stirring, until a toasted aroma, like popcorn, develops.
• Add about 1/3 of the liquid, stirring the rice frequently until the rice has absorbed the liquid and has begun to release some of its natural starch.
• Repeat the following step with the remaining liquid, making sure to stir well so that most of the liquid is absorbed each time.
• Cook the risotto until the rice is al dente and most of the liquid is absorbed; the texture should be creamy. ("al dente" is a culinary expression referring to the texture of cooked items like pasta and risotto. Those items need to be tender, yet firm enough to offer the right amount of textural appeal. These items should not taste soft and mushy.)

ROASTING TOMATOES
Roasted tomatoes, also known as "oven-dried," can be made by either halving or slicing ripe tomatoes. They can be used in place of sun-dried tomatoes in some recipes.

• Core the tomatoes and cut them into halves, wedges or slices.
• Coat the cut pieces lightly with oil. (If you like, you may add seasonings and aromatics. Salt, pepper, fresh or dried herbs, plain or infused oils, chopped garlic or shallots are all good choices.)
• Place the tomatoes on a sheet pan and roast them in a very slow oven, 93-121ºC, until they are slightly browned and have a rich, roasted aroma. Depending on the size of the pieces, this can take up to an hour, sometimes longer. The liquid will evaporate, the outside of the skin will shrivel, and the flavour will intensify.

ROUX AND LIQUID
To initiate a successful roux and liquid mixture, be sure that the roux and liquid temperatures are different. Hot liquid can be added to a cold roux or cold liquid can be added to a hot roux. This prevents the mixture from getting lumpy and ensures a smooth, flavourful soup or sauce.

The standard proportion of fat to flour in roux is one to one by weight, but depending on the types of fat and flour used, this proportion may need to be adjusted slightly. A common description of the proper texture of a finished roux is "like sand at low tide." Cooked roux should be moist but not greasy.

There are three basic types of roux, differing in thickening strength, aroma, and colour--the longer the roux is cooked, the less powerful its thickening ability, the nuttier its aroma, and the darker its colour. Generally it takes 115 grams of a blonde or pale roux to thicken (1 litre) of liquid. A greater amount of darker roux would be required to equally thicken 1 quart (1 litre) of liquid. The longer a roux is cooked the more dextrinisation takes place, dextrinisation is the process that breaks the flour down and gives it less thickening properties.

• Melt the butter or other fat in a pan over moderate to low heat.
• Add the flour and stir until smooth.
• If necessary, add a small amount of flour to achieve the proper consistency.
• Cook, stirring constantly, to the desired colour. The roux should be glossy in appearance. Be wary of making roux in aluminium pots and pans. Use non-metallic utensils to avoid scraping the aluminium. Interaction with aluminium will cause the roux to turn greyish-green in colour.
• Different types of roux are made according to their cooking times. White roux is cooked for approximately eight minutes, and is used for cream sauces.
• Blonde or pale roux is cooked for 10 to 12 minutes or until a light nutty aroma is apparent, and is used in velouté sauces.
• Brown roux is cooked for 15-20 minutes or until a deep nutty aroma is present and a rich brown colour is achieved. It is used in making brown sauces.
• Black roux, used almost exclusively in Acadian/Creole cuisine, has little strengthening power, but a lot of flavour.

Tally's Tip:
A faster way of making brown or black roux is to first toast the flour, on a tray, in an oven, stirring it frequently, until it is uniformly browned. Toast the flour to the desired colour before making the roux.

SAUSAGES
Sausage meat may be used in bulk (loose) form or to fill casings, natural or synthetic, which are then usually formed into links. From this point, they may be used fresh (poached, grilled, fried, or baked) or, if appropriate, they may be dried and smoked or cured. Smoked or cured sausages generally do not require additional cooking.

• Prepare and garnish the forcemeat as desired or required in the recipe used.
• Rinse the casings, inside and out, in tepid water to remove the salt and to make them more pliable.
• Be sure that all parts of the sausage stuffer, if using one, are clean and chilled.
• Tie a double knot in the casing end. Depending on the type of casing, as well as the type of sausage, the casing may be cut into appropriate lengths.
• Gather the casing over the nozzle of the sausage stuffer (or if stuffing by hand, the small end of a funnel)using water as a lubricant.
• Support the casing as the forcemeat is pressed through the nozzle of the sausage stuffer or funnel.
• If the sausage is to be made into links, use either of the following methods: Here the sausages are tied off at even intervals using fine kitchen string or use your fingers to gently press the sausages into even links.
• Then twist the links to keep them separate; no twine is used here.
• Using a teasing needle, prick the casings to expel any air bubbles that may cause the sausages to burst when cooked. At this point, fresh sausages may be cooked or stored under refrigeration. Other types of sausage may undergo additional curing, smoking or drying.

SPAETZLE
Spaetzle are a type of noodle shaped by dropping batter into barely simmering water or broth. Three different techniques for shaping spaetzle are illustrated. Spaetzle are German style noodles popular in the Bayern and Swabiche area.

• Form spaetzle using a spaetzle board. The batter is held on a flat board and scrapped off the board, into simmering water, with a metal spatula, forming thin noodle dumplings.
• Or use a spaetzle-maker, a hopper is filled with batter, then run back and forth over the holes in the metal plates. The batter drops through the holes and into the simmering water or broth.
• A ricer can also be used to drop batter into the cooking liquid. If you don't have a ricer, you can achieve virtually the same effect by pushing the batter through the holes of a colander.

STOCKS AND BROTHS
Simmer the stock long enough to fully develop flavour, body, clarity, colour, and aroma. Brown and white meat stocks traditionally required 6 to 8 hours of simmering time, however a 6 hour maximum is recommended, this will give a stock with a good fresh flavour and will stop it tasting stale. Fish stock and fumet are properly cooked within 20 minutes.

SWEATING VEGETABLES
Sweating implies that aromatic vegetables are being cooked gently over low heat, usually in a covered pot, to encourage them to begin releasing their flavour. This is an important step in flavour development and should be given enough time.

• Select a suitably sized pan to hold all the vegetables in a single layer with no bare spots. Heat the pan and add the butter (due the low heat required, fats and oils are not recommended for sweating, with the exception of any of the olive oils.
• When the pan is hot, add the vegetables, spreading them over the entire surface in one even layer. As the pan recovers heat, lower the flame and cover, if desired.
• Continue sweating the vegetables until they are begin to soften, onions become translucent, or until they have released their aroma. Most sweated vegetables are never browned.

TEMPERING CHOCOLATE
The process for preparing chocolate for glazing or coating items is known as tempering. Chocolate contains two distinct types of fat, each of which melts at a different temperature. In order to ensure that the chocolate will melt smoothly and harden evenly with a good shine, it must be handled carefully.

• Chop the chocolate coarsely with a chef's knife and place it in a stainless steel bowl.
• Place the bowl over barely simmering water, making sure that no moisture comes in contact with the chocolate, then turn the heat off.
• Stir the chocolate occasionally as it melts to keep it at an even temperature throughout, until it reaches a temperature of 40 to 43ºC
• Remove the chocolate from atop the water. Add a large piece of unmelted chocolate and stir it in until the temperature drops to between 30° to 33ºC. Maintain this temperature while you are working with the chocolate.If the chocolate drops below 29ºC, while you are working with it, re-temper it by repeating the steps listed above.
• Tempered chocolate will coat the back of a spoon with an even layer and then harden into a shiny shell. Items can be either dipped directly into the tempered chocolate with a dipping fork, or placed on a rack over a clean sheet tray and the chocolate poured over them.

If the chocolate scorches or becomes grainy, it can no longer be used. Likewise, if it comes in contact with moisture, it will seize or stiffen.

TOURNE
Turning vegetables (tourner in French) requires a series of cuts that simultaneously trim and shape the vegetable. The shape may be likened to a barrel or a football.

• Peel the vegetable, if desired.
• Cut into pieces of manageable size. Cut round or oval vegetables, such as beets and potatoes, into quarters, sixths, or eighths (depending on their size), to form pieces slightly larger than 2 inches. Cut cylindrical vegetables, such as carrots, into 2-inch pieces.
• Using a pairing or tourné knife, carve the pieces into barrel or football shapes. The faces should be smooth, evenly spaced, and tapered so that both ends are narrower than the center. Classically, a tourné is said to have seven sides.

TUILES
These delicate cookies are easily molded to form shells, cups and other shapes. Small dowels, rolling pins and teacups may be used as molds, depending on the desired result.

• Spoon the batter onto a prepared baking sheet: (buttered and floured)
• Use a fork or the back of a spoon to spread the batter out.
• Watch the first batch closely, while baking, to determine the approximate time needed to bake the tuiles without going beyond a pale golden color.
• Have your mold ready when you remove the tuiles from the oven.
• Remove the tuiles from the baking sheet and shape them while they are still very hot.
• As the tuiles cool they will become stiff and hold the shape of the mold.
• Fill the tuiles and serve, or store them in an airtight container as they will wilt easily when exposed to humidity.

WHIPPING CREAM
For best results, make sure that the cream is very cold when it is whipped. Chilling the bowl and beaters or whip in advance also aids in achieving full volume.

• Begin by whipping the cold cream, by hand or with a machine, at a moderate speed.
• Soft peaks will mound when dropped from the whip. Now is the correct time to add sugar or other flavoring ingredients.
• Medium peaks retain marks of the whip and will hold a soft peak that droops over slightly.
• Stiff peaks will form distinct mounds that hold their shape.
• Similar to egg whites, cream can be over-beaten. Over-beaten cream first develops a granular appearance. Eventually lumps will form and, if whipping continues, the cream will turn to butter.

WHIPPING EGG WHITES
There are some "tricks" for getting your egg whites to whip properly. First, be sure that there are no traces of yolk remaining in the whites. Second, let the whites come up to room temperature. Third, remove all traces of grease from bowls and whips or beaters by washing thoroughly. A little white vinegar can be used to clean your equipment but remember to rinse the equipment carefully if doing so.

• Begin by whipping egg whites at moderate speed.
• Tilt the bowl to make whipping by hand easier, resting the bowl on a folded towel to prevent slipping.
• When the whites are quite foamy, you can whip them at an increased speed. The whites pictured for this step are at a medium peak.
• Continue to whip the egg whites to the appropriate stage. Stiff peaks will stand up firmly as shown here.
• Over-beaten whites lose their glossy appearance and will not hold a defined peak.