MOTION PICTURE, continuous sequence of transparent still photographs, in black and white or color, exposed onto long strips of specially treated cellulose acetate and projected in rapid succession onto a screen to give the optical illusion of motion. Modern motion pictures are usually accompanied by a synchronized sound recording to heighten the illusion of reality. The terms film, moving pictures, or movies in the U.S. and cinema in Great Britain are commonly used synonyms for the term motion pictures. This article concerns the technical aspects of motion picture production, photography, and projection; for information about the artistic and historical development of motion pictures and the motion picture industry,
The basic components of a motion picture camera are a lens used for focusing an inverted image of the subject on the film while it is exposed; a shutter for regulating the exposure and blocking the lens while the film is being transported past the lens; a
channel, called the film gate, through which the film passes for exposure; and a mechanism for transporting the film through the camera and past the film gate's aperture (opening), through which the film is exposed. Motion picture film, also known as raw
stock, is a combination of light-sensitive crystals and dyes layered as an emulsion over long strips of perforated cellulose acetate. In all except ultrahigh-speed cameras used for research, the transport mechanism is so arranged that the film is moved intermittently and stopped for a fraction of a second at regular intervals. When the film is stopped, the camera shutter, which is geared to the film-transport mechanism, is opened for approximately 1/35 sec and a single picture, or frame, is photographed
on the film. When the shutter closes, the mechanism advances the film to the next frame, and the sequence is repeated at a rate of 24 exposures per second. Magazines attached to the camera are used to supply raw stock and store the exposed footage. These
magazines normally carry 122 or 305 m (400 or 1000 ft) of film; 122 m (400 ft) of 16-mm film shot at 24 frames per second or 305 m (1000 ft) of 35-mm film shot at 24 frames per second will run for 11 minutes.
The components of a motion picture projector are similar to those of a camera. Instead of collecting an image on film, however, the projector displays the image from the film on a screen. This requires the presence of an intense light behind the film, which in a large theater is usually achieved with an arc light and in a small theater with xenon globes. The projector uses a shutter to block the light while the film is being transported to the next frame, a mechanism to transport the film, and a lens to focus the image on a screen, the size of which is limited by the capabilities of the lens and the amount of available light. Projectors also have the ability to reproduce sound. This is done at the sound head, which is placed below the point where the image is projected. The sound track, positioned to one side of the image on the film, passes between an exciter lamp and a photoelectric cell, creating an electrical signal that is amplified and sent to speakers at the rear of the screen.
The projector operates at precisely the same speed as the camera, and as a result it throws a succession of 24 frames per second on the screen. The human eye needs 0.25 sec to receive an image and transmit the information to the brain for registration and
interpretation. The overlapping of picture information every 1/24 sec easily exceeds the persistence of vision requirements. As a result, the images on the screen seem to blend into one, and photographs showing successive positions of a person or object in motion give the illusion of a continuously moving picture.
For natural appearance of the screen picture, camera and projector must operate at the same frame speed, but by operating the camera at speeds much faster or much slower than normal, the apparent time of a motion can be expanded or reduced. The familiar "slow-motion" movies of athletes in action are obtained by operating the camera at three or more times its normal frame rate, thus making the motion picture occupy three or more times its actual duration when projected on the screen at normal speed. When the camera is operated at a very slow frame speed, precisely the reverse effect occurs. An extreme example of this procedure is photographing a growing plant at the rate of one frame every few hours. When such a film is projected, the actual time of growth is diminished several thousandfold, and in the projected picture the plant apparently springs from the earth and unfolds its leaves in a matter of seconds. Both slow-motion and fast-motion photography are valuable in some scientific research. Standardization of Equipment
For maximum utility motion picture cameras, projectors, and films have been stand ardized in several sizes so that film taken by any camera can be projected by any projector of the same size. Most professional motion picture photographers use film that is
35 mm (about 1.4 in) wide with rectangular perforations at both sides and a frame 2 cm (0.79 in) in height. Some films of a more spectacular nature are shot with 68/70 mm film; the camera negative is 68 mm (2.7 in) wide, and it is printed onto 70-mm (2.8-in) film for projection. For cameras used by amateurs and for some non theatrical professional motion pictures, the film is 16 mm (0.63 in) wide and has either two rows of perforations or a single row if a synchronized sound track is to accompany the
corresponding picture information. Some inexpensive cameras for amateurs are built for a film of 8-mm (about 0.31-in) width with a single row of perforations. Frequently these cameras are arranged to photograph two sets of frames side by side on a single
16-mm film, which is then split in two when it is developed.
The most significant categories of motion pictures are feature films, documentaries, and animated films, commonly called cartoons. The procedures involved in making these different types of films are similar, though they vary in technique and in degree.
The feature is produced in three stages: preproduction, production, and postproduction. The development, or preproduction, stage is the period of time when the story, or property, to be produced is procured. An option is a contract giving the producer the
rights to produce the story. The option, like any contract, states the terms and conditions under which the property owner will surrender the rights, including the length of time the property may remain stagnant should the producer be unable to gather financing to produce the film. Options may be renegotiated when they expire. Also during this stage, the script is finalized, the financing is obtained and budget designed, and the direc-tor and key personnel are selected. The production stage is the period of time when the filming of the story occurs. The length of this period, the number of crew members hired for the production, and many other elements are determined by the size of the budget. Most feature films require that specific schedules be followed so that the motion picture will be shot on time and within the established budget. The postproduction and editing stage is the period of time when all the parts of the film, which have been shot out of sequence, are put together to make one cohesive story. It is also the time when the search for the best arrangement for the distribution of the film takes place, if such an arrangement was not made earlier.
The documentary is a nonfiction film depicting real-life situations with individuals often describing their feelings and experiences in an unrehearsed manner to a camera or an interviewer. Documentaries are frequently shot without a script and at a much lower ratio of usable footage than a feature film. They are rarely viewed in theaters that exhibit feature films but are seen regularly on cable and broadcast television. Documentaries can be shot on location or simply assembled from archival material. Documentary and non theatrical film production commonly uses 16-mm film, which is less expensive, lighter to carry, and provides the producer with sufficient quality for the purpose for which it is intended.
Animation is the technique of using film to create the illusion of movement from a series of two-dimensional drawings or three-dimensional objects. The creation of an animated motion picture nearly always begins with the preparation of a storyboard, a series of sketches that portrays the important parts of the story and also gives part of the dialogue. Additional sketches are then prepared to establish backgrounds and decor and the appearance and temperaments of the characters.In some sequences the music and dialogue are recorded before the final animation is executed, so that the final sequence of frame-by-frame drawings is governed by the sound tracks. In other sequences a final series of sketches precedes and thus governs the composition and arrangement of the music or other sound effects and the style and pace of the dialogue. Both types of synchronization are sometimes used in a single production.The backgrounds?that is, all static objects?are drawn only once. Those figures that are to be animated are drawn on a series of transparent plastic sheets, called cels, and then superimposed on the background and photographed in sequence, frame by frame. The stop-frame motion picture camera used in animation is called a rostrum camera and is placed above a special table on which the layers of background and cels are held horizontally. The height of the camera and the horizontal displacement of the background are controlled by very precise gearing to ensure proper scenic composition.The animation technique for photographing three-dimensional puppets is very similar. Movement and changes of expression are accomplished by careful sequential readjustment of the puppets between each exposure of the rostrum camera.
The skills and talents of many different people are involved in filmmaking. The stars and other actors who appear on the screen are only part of the story; most of what goes into a production takes place off-camera. Depending on the size, or scale, of the
production, and the financing available, thousands of people may have a part in producing a motion picture. The following descriptions of the duties performed by the people involved in producing a motion picture apply mainly to the feature film. Among those who are most prominent behind the scenes are the producer, screenwriter, direc-tor, production manager, assistant direc-tor, direc-tor of photography, casting direc-tor, film and sound editors, composer, and production and costume designers.
The producer is responsible for turning a film idea into a finished motion picture by arranging for the financing of the project, gathering the talent to make the film, and, finally, making arrangements for distributing the finished product. When financing has been obtained from independent investors who form a limited partnership, the producer is often made the general, or managing, partner. A studio or distributor that has financed the motion picture may require a representative, called an executive producer, to be involved during production. A person contributing substantially in any manner to the motion picture may receive the credit of associate producer or some other similar title.
The function of screenwriters varies greatly with the type of film being produced. A screenwriter may be called upon to develop an idea or to adapt a novel, stage play, or musical to the special requirements of the screen. The first step in writing a script is usually creating an outline, a one- or two-page description of the action or plot. This is followed by a treatment, which is a detailed description of the film, usually containing passages of dialogue, with all the scenes sketched out and the subplots in position. Upon approval, the writer may begin writing the script, or screenplay, which details all the dialogue and action. In a few cases, scripts also indicate the camera movements and editing; however, today these are considered specialized
fields that are under the control of the direc-tor. Unlike a stage play, a screenplay is usually purchased outright; consequently, the producers may do what they want with it.
The key person in the making of a film is the direc-tor, the individual who visualizes the script and guides the production crew and actors to carry out that vision. The direc-tor has artistic control over everything from the script itself to the final cut of the film. It is the direc-tor's sense of the dramatic along with the creative visualization of the script that transforms a story into a well-made motion picture. The direc-tor is usually selected by the producer. Along with the producer, the direc-tor then puts together the production team.
The UPM is responsible to the producer for scheduling, selecting many of the crew, arranging for permits from various authorities and owners to shoot at locations outside the studio, overseeing the purchase of goods and services needed for the production, and handling the day-to-day business of running the production office.
Several ADs are frequently assigned to a motion picture, depending on the budget and complexity of the production. The first AD sees to it that the production schedules are met and submits the following day's call sheet for approval by the UPM and the direc-tor. The first AD works along with the direc-tor during shooting, assisting in the preparation for each shot. The second AD assists the first AD by having the cast and crew in the right places at the right times, looking after extras (also called ambience), and taking care of all the details involved in preparing for the next day's schedule.
The DP, also known as cinematographer or cameraperson, works closely with the direc-tor and interprets in terms of light, shade, and composition the direc-tor's feeling for the mood and atmosphere of each shot. Other cinematographers may be retained to shoot special effects?the camera tricks that add to the scale and spectacle of a film.
In the selection of actors for a film, casting direc-tors take many factors into account, such as an actor's suitability to the role,box-office appeal, acting ability, and experience. Depending on the situation, experience may or may not outweigh the other factors. As a practical matter, some actors and direc-tors work together on many productions during their careers.
Inasmuch as motion pictures are an assemblage of hundreds of brief shots, the arrangement of hese shots into a smooth-flowing, rhythmic whole is a specialized art. This arrangement is the function of the editors, who in turn supervise teams of specialists
in the cutting and editing of sound tracks and film negatives. The editor starts by synchronizing the film to the sound track and by screening the film footage (called dailies or rushes) for the direc-tor and key members of the crew. Many motion pictures
are now edited on videotape and then transferred back onto film after the editing is completed. Preparation of the rushes continues each day throughout the production period. After the principal photography is completed, post-production starts, by which time the editor has compiled almost all the material needed to complete an assembly of the motion picture. After the direc-tor and producer have approved the final print, either the editor or a specialized sound editor corrects any sound recording problems. If necessary, the sound editor rerecords the actors in a studio while viewing the action on a screen. This is known as automated dialogue replacement (ADR), formerly called looping. Editors and sound editors also gather sound recordings and sometimes create new sounds (sound effects) to enhance the dramatic content of the scenes. While the sound is being prepared, the editor also supervises optical effects and titles that are to be inserted into the motion picture. One of the final steps in the editing process is the preparation and mixing of the separate sound tracks onto one master magnetic film that will contain separate dialogue, music, and sound effects tracks in synchronization with the print. The music and effect (M&E) tracks are required for foreign distribution.
The composer creates the musical score that accompanies other sounds and dialogue or just the photographic image. The composer works with the direc-tor and editor to enhance the dramatic content of the scene. Music can establish a mood as well as conjure up any number of emotions in seconds. For example, music can identify a person as being suspicious when there is nothing visible on the screen to suggest such a characteristic. Music can also be a bridge from one scene to another in order to prepare the audience for the mood of the next scene. Musical themes are composed for the story, and one or two characters may have their own themes, either related to or separate from the main theme.
Generally the art direc-tor of a production, the person who is responsible for the set designs and the overall look of the film, is called the production designer. In motion pictures where the actors' clothing is an important part of that look, such as in historical epics, the costume designer is a key member of the production team. Other designers are concerned direc-tly with lighting, makeup, and other visual aspects of the production.
Distributors lease motion pictures from the producer or production company, promote and advertise the film, distribute copies of the film to exhibitors?generally individual movie houses or chains of theaters?throughout the world, arrange for cable and broadcast television release and cassette distribution to stores worldwide, and keep records of the income and expenses for all aspects of film distribution. Frequently, these tasks are subcontracted to distributors that specialize in foreign markets or in a particular market. The producer pays for this service by giving the distributor a percentage of the revenue, ranging from 10 to 50 percent of the motion picture's net income. Additionally, the distributor will deduct from the producer's share of the net profits the cost for supplying prints of the film, and for advertising and promotion.Ancillary markets are those income-producing markets that were not the primary target of the motion picture. These markets include the production of such items as children's toys and games, T-shirts, and music recordings from the score of the film. Frequently, producers will attract well-known composers by permitting them to retain all ancillary rights to their film music.