Strategic Environment Reflection Questions

#1 Explain the difference between how a realist vs. globalist would react toward the Bosnian situation? Does this change if you are American vs. European?

The realist would evaluate whether the conflict in Bosnia impacts his own states interests. If his states interests or power could be increased by acting in Bosnia, then the realist would take action. However, a globalist is much more likely to become involved regardless of impact on his states interests. Because globalists believe in the evolution of one world community, they would take action on the Bosnia issue perpetuating the evolution toward a world community.

#2 How does a realist vs. globalist view agreements like NAFTA?

The realists view would depend on whether his state received benefit from the agreement. If the realists state gained power from the agreement, they would regard NAFTA positively. However, the globalist would view NAFTA positively regardless. The globalist would see this as another step toward a united world community.

#3 What is the biggest difference between globalism and other forms of idealism?

The Globalist would not have a policy of exclusion or separatism. Because the globalism believes there is a trend toward world unity, they would establish policy that encouraged the conversion of individual communities into a greater world community. Globalist believe these agreements are the beginning of a world community.

#4 What would a realist vs globalist identify as the most significant world trend today?

The realist would identify the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) as the most important world issue. Since WMD increases the military power of the state, they also decrease the power of competitor states. The globalist would identify the emergence of global and regional treaties and agreements as the most significant trend. Global believe these agreements are the beginning of a world community.

#5 Define ethnocentrism and mirror-imaging.

Ethnocentrism is the natural and sub-conscious process of using our beliefs, values, religions, cultures and emotions as standards to judge all actors. Mirror imaging is the process of making assumptions and inferences about actors based on our own values, religious, culture and emotions.

#6 Explain the dangers of interpreting world events through our own biases.

Our own biases and perceptions act as filters which prohibit us from clearly understanding the motivations behind another actors behavior. Because we all do not share the same history, culture, geography, religion, etc., we can easily misinterpret another actors behavior to be counter to our own interests. This often leads to conflict and hostilities which are difficult to resolve.

#7 How can we help reduce the biases which prevent us from clearly interpreting world events?

General methods for reducing bias include: Keeping an open mind; Staying focused on objectives and end state rather than emotions which can cloud issues; Educating the public about true issues rather than faulty perceptions; Using the tools of critical analysis to understand the contextual events surrounding an action; Valuing the importance of understanding culture; and understanding that the depth of knowledge necessary to fully appreciate a complex issue takes time.

#8 What will constitute power and wealth in the future?

Knowledge. Neither raw materials nor human muscle will be the source of power, but the application of the human mind. Such knowledge could be laboriously developed, or it could be transferred, bought, stolen, or imported through immigration. But those who will make it, will be those who develop their electronic and information infrastructures.

#9 What effect will this have on the developing countries?

They will have to rethink their methods of survival. Some will succeed, others will collapse. During the Cold War, some lesser developed countries were able to sell their strategic location. Strategic geography was a valuable commodity. This is no longer the case. The bulk raw material producers will not fare well. The industrialized nations will need many different resources, but in smaller quantities. Certain traditionally used resources will be virtually worthless. Knowledge will allow us to do more with less. In the past, low-skill labor was an essential production input. But cheap labor is no longer the path to development. Cheap labor has now become expensive. Hence, many overseas production facilities may relocate to the First World. This means that the fast economies will decouple from the slow. Many will become marginalized. This will be dangerous if such states acquire advanced weaponry.

#10 What did Hughes, in the reading excerpted from Continuity and Change in World Politics, mean by Knodratieff cycles?

Kondratieff cycles are approximately fifty to sixty years in the world economy. The theory stipulates that after the initial innovation, and related economic growth, a period of diminishing productivity improvements and slower growth follows. Although the technologies (as inventions) for a new upswing are often available throughout the downturn, they initially contribute little to productivity improvements. Some have made the argument that these long waves of technological advance may affect both economic performance and conflict between states.

#11 What are the three difficulties Hughes identifies in the effort to deny technology to specific states?

1) Problem associated with dual use technology. For example, technology included in construction equipment may also be applicable to the design and manufacture of tanks. 2) Many technologies are difficult to trace and hence difficult to pinpoint its origin. 3) Many countries have circumvented restrictions with an extensive network for economic and military technology espionage, using diplomatic missions, exchange students, and other personnel.

#12 Explain how the modernization and dependency theories of economic development differ.

The modernization theory of economic development is based on the belief that economic development requires the rejection of traditional patterns of behavior, value, and organization, and the acceptance of new patterns of behavior, value, and organization more conducive to economic development. Modernization theorists point out the need for an educated population; widespread acceptance of science, technology, and the scientific method throughout society; increased secularization; urbanization; division of labor; rule by law rather than edict; a system of social and economic rewards based on; greater social mobility among people and classes; and tolerance for diversity, innovation, and change. On the other hand, dependency theorists believe that industrialization began in Europe, North America, and Japan in the absence of external competition. In today's world, countries attempting to develop economically face immense external competition and this competition prevents economic growth. The First World's economic development was underwritten by the inexpensive raw material and labor of the Developing World. Modernization theorists argue the economic gap between rich and poor states is due to the industrialized worlds exploitation of less fortunate regions of the world and the unfair advantage early economic development provided European states and other industrialized states.

#13 Briefly describe how US economic power has declined over the years.

The decline in US economic power can be seen by the rise of international trading blocs, the recent trend toward greater regionalization, the growth of intra-regional trade, and the demise of the Bretton Woods economic system.

#14 Describe how Multinational Corporations (MNC) influence the emerging global economy.

Because of their size, MNCs yield impressive economic, political, and social power. Multinational corporations can make or break a local economy and in the cases of smaller states, even a national economy They provide investment funds, jobs, advanced technologies, and educational services. Collectively, MNCs possess the ability to influence exchange rates. Most large MNCs are based in the developed industrialized world. Developing World states see MNCs as instruments of economic imperialism, also known as neocolonialism. Economic growth rate can be accelerated or retarded by corporate decisions. Because of the MNC, state governments have lost some of their ability to influence and control decisions within their own states. MNCs have been accused of destroying traditional cultures by the increased use of sophisticated advertising techniques, and replacing their culture with local versions of American and Western European consumer societies. According to critics of MNCs, continued unbridled operation of MNCs in developing countries will inevitably lead to more unemployment, more environmental degradation, poorer nutrition and health standards, and ignore inequitable distribution of wealth in those countries.

#15 What differentiates civilizations from each other?

Huntington identifies several characteristics which differentiates civilizations from each other. These include history, language, culture, tradition, and his most important characteristic, religion. He also observes that civilizations have different views regarding relations between God and man, individual and the group, citizen and the state, and members of a family. Civilizations also differ on questions of rights and responsibilities, liberty and authority, and equality and hierarchy. Such differences are the product of centuries and transcend mere ideologies or specific political regimes that are passing phenomena. Actors: The President, Secretaries of State and Defense, Generals Powell and Schwarzkopf, Congress, the media, US oil companies, etc.**Factors: *-- Discussion of the legislative restrictions on the use of force (War Powers Resolution Act)*-- General public approval of the Presidents actions throughout the crisis.*-- The volatile price of oil and wide swings in the stock market while the US was struggling with a recession-prone economy.

#16 As attractive as Huntington's argument is, it is not without its vulnerabilities. What are some of the weaknesses?

Nation-states rather than civilizations fight. Both World Wars and Desert Storm saw members of the same civilizations engaged in battle against each other. The bloodiest war-related atrocities are committed in civil wars-among members of similar cultures. In Bosnia, Westerners have supported Muslims against Orthodox Serbs and Catholic Croatians. He does not sufficiently allow for the convergence of civilizations--which may be greatly expedited in the modern information age. Many traditional attributes of civilizations are rapidly diminishing in their importance as distinguishing features. Delineating between civilizations is also a messy task. It cannot be done as neatly as Huntington presents it. Huntington may be overvaluing the religious factor.

#17 Describe the three phases of the Arab-Israeli conflict?

This is an evolving and dynamic conflict because the many wars between the Arabs and Israelis failed to resolve their underlying concerns. This conflict has undergone three phases beginning with the Balfour Declaration in 1917. The second phase began with the war of 1948 and ended with the Six-Day War of 1967. The rise of Pan-Arabism and integral unity of the Arab world and the elimination of Israel dominated this phase. The third phase began with the end of the 1967 war and continues today. The seizure of Egyptian, Jordanian and Syrian territory benefited Israel as long as the US provided military, diplomatic and economic support. This seizure of territory caused Egypt, Jordan and Syria focus their national interest as opposed to their Arab interest, recovery of Palestine, from phase two.

#18 Why has this conflict not been resolved during its cycle of warfare?

Although, this conflict shared certain characteristics with other prolonged conflicts, it soon became a protracted conflict. During the three phases major Arab actors concluded the status quo of no war, no peace gave its side time to prepare for the next war. The Israelis favored a protracted strategy since it seemed their best chance for survival and territorial expansion. This changed in 1973 for Egypt and Israel largely because of the American involvement and the 1973 war.

#19 What are the basic attributes common to all systems?

In your readings Rolf described a system as "a collection of components, interacting for a purpose." Every "system encompasses three major concepts. First, there is "time" - that is, how a system changes over time. Second, there is "accumulation" - that is, how flows/rates are accumulated into stock. Third, there is "feedback" - which is analysis of the system.

#20 Describe the strategic environment in systems terms.

According to Rolf a system has two descriptive qualities. These are: the materials flowing through the system, and the structure that contains and controls their flow. Having described its qualities, he goes on to define what a system is: A system is a collection of components, interacting for a purpose. Viewed in those terms, the strategic environment can be seen in terms of the behavior of the various components of the international system, as they interact for their own varying purposes. Most of these components are states, although we know there are many non-state actors as well (NGOs, MNCs, etc.). The materials they use can be violence, funds, forms of information - and all are contained within various structures, such as military organizations, banking channels, telecommunications nets. Papp uses various diagrams to show models of possible systems of interacting components, in this case varying groupings of states. In the context of his text, they are trying to form up in different ways to reach an international power equilibrium, or a self-protective balance of power. He is very clear these initial diagrams are simplistic. Later on he makes things more complex. He lists numerous actors, analogous to Rolfs components, which individual states must interact with. These include other states, IGOs, MNCs, and NGOs. Then he examines purposes some of these various actors might pursue, with greater or lesser success depending on the circumstances of what other actor they interact with. His conclusion is that taken together, all international actors plus their interactions with one another form an international system. And Papp understands that over time, as actors, their capabilities, and interests change, so does the system, itself. So he leaves room for system dynamics, quoting Raymond Aron in seeing continuous interactions of actors creating an ever-changing international system that defies simplistic explanations.

#21 What are the sources of international law? Provide examples of each.

There are four recognized sources of international law: First, International conventions and treaties. Examples of this include the Hague and Geneva Conventions, the UN Charter, and bilateral treaties such as SALT I. Second, international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law. An example of this includes the Nuremberg trials of the major war criminals. Many of the convictions were based on crimes against humanity. Third, the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations. Examples here include: military necessity (i.e., do only that which is necessary to obtain a legitimate military objective); proportionality (i.e., balancing the value of the objective against the anticipated collateral damage that will result); humanity (i.e., avoid inflicting unnecessary suffering--for example dum dum bullets, which are hollow-nosed, expand greatly upon impact and inflict unnecessary pain). Fourth, judicial decisions and scholarly writings of the most highly qualified publicists (i.e., decisions of the International Court of Justice and the writings of luminaries such as Grotius and St. Augustine.

#22 Briefly explain and contrast the law of war (a.k.a. the law of armed conflict) and rules of engagement.

The law of war and its obligations thereunder are that which US forces must follow in all situations (DoD Directive 5100.77). Rules of Engagement (ROE) on the other hand, are directives issued by competent military authority which delineate the circumstances and limitations under which US forces will initiate and/or continue combat engagement with other forces (Joint Pub 1-02). Because ROE are developed with political and diplomatic considerations in mind--in addition to the legal considerations prompted by the law of war--the ROE in a given situation will often restrict the nature and/or scope of planned armed operations beyond that which is required by the law of war.

#23 Identify and explain the reasons states observe the law of war.

There are essentially three reasons states observe the law of war: political, military and humanitarian. Politically, its important to bear in mind that wars are fought for political purposes (i.e., a desired strategic end state) by military means. Violations of the law of war can engender negative press coverage which can affect domestic support for the use of force and world opinion. Militarily, violations can stiffen enemy resistance and make surrender less probable (e.g., consider the fact that in the waning days of World War II that German forces surrendered in droves on the western front, but fought bitterly on the eastern front. In addition, the proper, non-excessive use of force ensures maximum force is brought to bear against military objectives--the enemy's center(s) of gravity and not wasted on diversionary or counterproductive targets. Finally, from a humanitarian perspective, its simply the right thing to do and helps ensure you win the peace as well as the war. In your reading on General Powell's Report to Congress on the conduct of the Persian Gulf War, you can contrast the keen observance of the law of war by the U.S. against Iraq's flagrant violations and overall cavalier regard. In this regard, consider the positive and negative effects which emanated from those two approaches.

#24 In General Powell's Report to Congress he discusses the law of war considerations surrounding the deliberate breaching operation by the 1st Infantry (Mechanized) at the outset of the ground campaign--which involved the live burial of entrenched Iraqi troops. You should be able to use the operation to analyze the different law of war considerations involved.

Military necessity required a violent, rapid attack. Had the breaching operation stalled, the larger main effort by VII Corps would have been affected--resulting in operational failure a well as extensive Coalition casualties. Although lives would undoubtedly have been saved, there is no requirement to give an opposing force an opportunity to surrender prior to commencement of an engagement (assuming hostilities are on-going) or else the element of surprise would be lost. In addition, the more difficult question emanates from the intentional burial of soldiers who attempted to surrender at the very last moment--again military necessity (the rapid forward movement of the operation) precluded stopping the advance to accept scattered attempted surrenders (which is a nice way of saying, [S]orry pal too late).

#25 Explain some of the motives for nation-states to enter treaties and other agreements.

The motives for entering into international agreements range from altruistic global concerns to unadorned self-interest. Through a variety of international conventions and understandings, states have attempted to limit the potential consequences of external influences and threats from both military and non-military sources. The self-interests of emerging regional powers, the transfer of technologies, and posturing to protect economic interests will force treaty and alliance signatories and non-signatories to reexamine the appropriateness of compliance. At the same time, the very nature of an uncertain future will prompt more nations to seek the perceived stability of international agreements.

#26 How do signatories to agreements enforce compliance?

The signatories use a variety of measures to enforce compliance. Agreements usually contain mechanisms to resolve disputes. These mechanisms may range from bilateral discussions, to on-site inspections and verification, to mediation through regional (e.g., the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe) or international forums (e.g., the International Court of Justice). Signatories may also choose to bring political pressure on the violator by publicizing accusations through the media and influencing world opinion.

#27 What effect has the breakup of the USSR had on such treaties as CFE.

The breakup has changed the terms of the agreement as well as the legal obligations of the successor states. Since the USSR no longer exists as a legal entity, the successor states, particularly Russia, have sought to renegotiate the terms of compliance. As nation-states break apart, agreements may have to be renegotiated to reflect the changed borders and political realities.

#28 What possible trends might we see in terms of cooperative agreements for the developing and developed worlds.

We may expect the integration of regional economies to form larger and more powerful--hence competitive--economic units. However, these different integrative units will have to be adapted to local needs, since models such as the European Union are not appropriate for every such effort. The poor states must stabilize politically if they are to attract vital foreign investors and economic partners. Their high population growth rates must be controlled as these countries' scant economic progress is quickly negated. The nonviable states will soon require drastic measures if their basic humanitarian needs are to be addressed. Alternatively, the rest of the world must gird for an ever increasing amount of destabilization and refugees fleeing from numerous conflicts.

#29 Cite examples of integration in Europe and what they mean for that region.

The reunification of Germany and efforts to strengthen the European Union are two examples of integration. These developments reflect the changes in the regional environment since the end of the Cold War. Western European countries are taking steps to increase their cooperation in order to derive collective economic, technological, and political benefits. They seek reduced trade barriers, a common currency, and increased security through a common defense and foreign policy.

#30 Cite examples of fragmentation in Europe and what they mean for that region.

The breakup of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia earlier this decade reflect the re-emergence of nationalism and ethnic strife. While the peaceful breakup of Czechoslovakia was described as the velvet divorce, the violent breakup of Yugoslavia threatened to spill over into neighboring countries and draw other countries into the conflict in a way similar that World War I dragged countries into a conflagration.

#31 What problems does NATO face in the future?

The reasons for NATO's original creation no longer exist. However, there remains uncertainty about Europe, especially Russia and Eastern Europe. Expanding NATO with the inclusion of some East European states is problematic. The West has introduced the "Partners for Peace" program--which allows for greater interaction between West and East, but without extending full membership to the East. NATO membership may be offered to select countries in 1997 if certain political, military and economic criteria are met.

#32 Are the problems of integration and fragmentation in Europe similar to those found in other regions of the world?

Yes; Europe is grappling with political, economic, social and technological issues that profoundly affect its security and prosperity. In other regions of the world, we find similar turbulence caused by changes wrought by immigration, environmental pollution, technological advances, nationalism and ethnic/tribal strife.

#33 Examine the concept of modernity, and apply the concept in analyzing whether it will permit an inherently asymmetric culture (free market economy with authoritarian political regime) or whether it will necessitate liberalization of other aspects of the culture in congruence with a free market economic system.

Mr. Bell, in his article, Will the Twenty-First Century be the Pacific Century? states: At its best, modernity has meant the extension of personal freedom, particularly in life styles. At its worst, modernity has meant the overstepping of boundaries to encourage drugs, pornography, libertinism, and the lack of individual responsibility for ones actions. With this as a guide, you should first understand that there is no one right answer to this question, but only an educated guess. Ms. Woo-Cumings argues in The New Authoritarianism in East Asia reading that the ideal statist utopia of free market economics without a concomitant loss of political control is difficult as it actually represents the age-old picture of a state in the capitalist developmental phase--portending future liberalization in the political systems (notably Chinas) as progress proceeds. Ms. Woo-Cumings point in elaborated upon in detail by Mr. Segal in his article--Chinas Changing Shape. On the other hand, Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong of Singapore argues (to his own people) that the liberal political structure of the West (with all its attendant ills) can not only be avoided--but should be actively guarded against and beaten back. The Prime Minister argues that it is his peoples fealty to conservative family-oriented values that have permitted Singapore's economic advancement to date, and will determine whether it continues.

#34 Identify various forms of bias: ethnocentrism (the belief in the inherent superiority of ones own group) and xenophobia (fear of foreigners) in the accompanying assigned writings.

In Prime Minister Goh Chok Tongs address to his people entitled, Social Values, Singapore Style, you should recognize virulent forms of both ethnocentrism and xenophobia. In Will the Twenty First Century Be The Pacific Century? Mr. Bell assesses the Pacific Rim countries with a largely Western-centered yardstick. Essentially, you should recognize that some bias in evident in nearly all work--and thus it is important for you to recognize it and factor it in critically analyzing the authors points.

#35 Identify the factors that indicate the growing importance and influence of the Pacific Rim Region with those suggesting otherwise.

Like many factors--there can be a positive and negative aspect to the same set of observed conditions. While the list below is not exhaustive, the accompanying readings identify the following factors generally applicable to the group (China, Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam). Positive: solid family, societal and educational systems; confucianist traditions elevate good of the group (society) over the individual; state-economic cooperation works to promote key growth/cutting-edge industries; large military forces (6 of 8 of worlds largest are in Asia); and extensive trading linkages between member-states. Negative: economic growth with little regard for environmental destruction--resulting in latent environmental problems; establishment of projectionist barriers by US and European markets; historical and cultural enmity which produces limited political connections between member-states; focus on making/manufacturing products rather than innovation and invention; economic production emphasized over economic productivity--which is of declining value in a information-oriented future; and authoritarian regimes lack institutionalized method by which power devolves upon death of ruler.

#36 Describe the type of economic growth model used by China.

As can be seen in the readings, most notably Mr. Segal, is using a sequential model, permitting largely unfettered economic freedom in its coastal zones, while retaining (at this time) much more restrictive control over its inland more agrarian areas. However, political control is still firmly exercised throughout China. In some ways, China can be said to patterning its growth along the lines of Singapore--a small and non-comparable city-state area. Whether this model will be effective in the long run for China is debatable.

#37 Describe hydropolitics and some key concerns of the hydropolitical environment in the Middle East.

Hydropolitics is that element of politics related to a governments management of water-related policies, goals, and affairs. Monetary economics, resource allocation, development of infrastructure, and international disagreements are standard issues encountered in the world of hydropolitics. Key concerns in the Middle East include water withdrawal rate; the amount of precipitation in the area; pollution and its effect on standing water sources and downstream users; desertation and deforestation; and water rights and allocation.

#38 How do the lessons we learned in SE 521 (Fragmentation and Integration) apply as we view the hydropolitical problems present in the Middle East?

How each nation confronts its individual water problems is the actual focus of hydropolitics. Conflict has often resulted over unlimited access to water, and with growing populations and increasing demand, the likelihood for future conflict remains ever present. Should conflict arise, fragmentation is a very likely possibility. Such conflict, or fragmentation, does not have to be the norm. We have also witnessed some attempts at cooperation, most notably through planned distribution pipelines or canals, and the proposal and acceptance of international treaties or laws aimed at equitable distribution. Approaches such as these lend to greater cooperation not only on water-related issues, but also on other regional issues.

#39 Why are other global actors concerned about the resolution of water-rights and allocation issues in the Middle East?

Concern for Middle East problems spans the spectrum from peripheral humanitarian compassion, to the core concern of ensuring a continuing flow of oil. Should Middle East problems be resolved in a peaceful fashion, that portends well for the rest of worlds need for a steady access to oil. If conflict should erupt, global economies would suffer due to the impeded flow of oil as well as the humanitarian and economic resources required to intercede. Clearly, the way in which Middle East actors solve their problems can have a ripple effect on other issues present in the area.

#40 How can the lessons learned about scarcity of resources help us better understand our strategic environment?

Resource scarcity results in pressures which often lead to conflict. Scarcity presents those who are party to the issue with an option: either resolve the issue in a problem-solving, collegial fashion, or compete in a contentious fashion to obtain as much of the resource as necessary. Resolving the problem in the first manner can help solve problems at the root cause, and often helps build a stable foundation for preventing future concerns. To the contrary, conflict often creates further problems and very rarely addresses the underlying concerns.

#41 Describe the dangers associated with having nuclear weapons as in the case of India and Pakistan.

Indian nuclear program is much larger and more diversified than Pakistan's and this disparity in nuclear capability could result in blackmail. In addition, Pakistan's conventional weakness means the decision to go nuclear would come earlier rather than later should any conflict erupt. Any use of nuclear weapons could lead to Total War. Any use of nuclear weapons could expand Chinese involvement, possibly military intervention, thus making any US alliances insecure. Also, it would break the taboo against nuclear use and encourage other states to acquire, deploy and contemplate using the only class of weapons that could threaten US security on a large scale. Both India and Pakistan feel the nuclear capability of their respective country deters the other from attacking them. Some Americans feel this dual capability gives stability to the region, while other Americans believe there is a danger of inadvertent nuclear war or unauthorized use of the weapons, perhaps by terrorists. Another thought by Americans is the strategic impact of nuclear capable ballistic missiles which India/Pakistan may soon deploy. Currently they have only nuclear weapons that are assembled for deployment by aircraft.

#42 State four reasons why the acquisition of nuclear weapons has so much appeal from mid-level states as in the case of India and Pakistan.

First, nuclear weapons have become the weapon of the weak capturing the attention of superpowers and thought to be the equalizer among states. Second, where survival of the state is at some risk, nuclear weapons are considered the ultimate deterrent. Third, nuclear weapons can be used to project power in an attempt to achieve hegemony over a region. Finally, acquiring nuclear capabilities for civilian nuclear programs provides a relatively cheap and reliable source of electric power for economic development and modernization.

#43 Describe India's position with regards to signing the Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT).

India, along with Israel and Pakistan are believed to have nuclear weapons outside the NPT framework. India has refused to sign the NPT, even though the treaty was indefinitely extended in 1995. Because of the NPT agreement, US and Russia continue to make deep reductions in their nuclear weapons arsenal (former holdouts of France and China have signed it ). India originally supported the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) and called for a global ban on production of weapons grade fissile material in the 1950s. Now that India has nuclear power, they insist India's agreement to the CTBT must be linked to a schedule for complete universal disarmament. Some within India believe they need nuclear weapons to fend off potential challenges from Pakistan and China.

#44 Describe the Policy Process Model; its purposes and strengths.

(The Policy Process Model is set forth in the accompanying slides--please ensure you refer to it.) The Policy Process Model is a useful tool in ensuring you have anticipated, amassed, factored in and interpreted all available information and considerations (internal and external) in determining options and selecting a course of action--i.e.,--choosing the correct Instrument(s) of Power (IOP) to use. The Policy Process Model is a dynamic model--enabling and encouraging the user to factor in results/feedback and do a peelback to determine subsequent courses of action in response to observed results.

#45 Describe the assumptions inherent in the Policy Process Model and identify limitations on its utility.

There are four basic assumptions concerning the PPM: First, it essentially proceeds from a realist viewpoint and thus produces a realist course of action (i.e., it assumes the actor is motivated by self-interests, not idealist considerations); Secondly, it assumes a unitary (monolithic) actor--state or non-state. While the model can factor in the interests, etc., of another state/actor on considering options/selecting a course of action for a certain actor, it cannot produces proposed courses of action for two actors at the same time. Third, it assumes the actor/user will be able to obtain sufficient information to identify options and assess expectant consequences of same. Fourth; it assumes the actor/user is rational--and will/wants to select optimal solution. With the above assumptions in mind, the utility of the model is thus limited by: imperfect information; impact of multiple actors; selection of suboptimal solutions in contravention of the model; and failure of the actor to accept feedback results and consider change in course of action.

#46 Explain why the United States publishes a national security strategy and identify the three central goals of US National Security Strategy.

Our national security requires the patient application of American will and resources--which, as a democratic republic, can only be sustained with the broad, bipartisan support of the American people and their elected representatives in Congress. Accordingly, it is crucial that our national values and objectives be explained through a national security strategy to the American public and their elected representatives--so that fellow Americans understand what objectives the U.S. is pursuing and corresponding policies--and thus garner the anticipated support of an informed citizenry. With this backdrop, the U.S. is pressing a strategy of [E]ngagement and [Enlargement in support of these three goals: to enhance our security with military forces that are ready to fight and with effective representation abroad; to bolster Americas economic revitalization; to promote democracy abroad.

#47 Describe US policy in considering whether or not to use military force/commit US troops.

The US is oftentimes able to leverage its other weighty IOPs (political/diplomatic, economic, information) in such a way as to make the actual application of the military IOP necessary. That said, we will use force, with allied nations or alone if we must, when our national security interests are threatened--but then only when our objectives are clear and with the means to prevail decisively in any resultant combat. The term national security interests, encompasses three broad categories: vital interests--those of overriding importance to the survival, security and vitality of the US (e.g., defense of US territory, citizens and economic well-being); important interests--affecting our national well-being and the character of the world in which we live (e.g., Bosnia and Haiti); and humanitarian interests--here the focus is not necessarily using the military IOP, but rather using the unique capabilities the US military can bring to bear (e.g., Rwanda relief operation). Thus, in determining whether and when to use force, the first consideration is the level of national interest involved. The second consideration is assessing the expected costs and risks--i.e., our involvement must be commensurate with the stakes involved. Finally, in deciding how to use force, the US will ensure there is a clear mission and the means to achieve the objective decisively, and second--the US will, to the extent possible, attempt to engage/solicit the assistance of our allies or other groups (e.g., the UN).

#48 Describe the role of action channels in the Governmental Politics Model.

Action channels execute the politically based decisions. Action channels are preselected individuals or groups of people politically chosen to work a particular issue. All action channels have their own interest at stake, some to protect the White House, some to protect their job, some to protect friends, and some even national security. In fact, some even believed they could disobey the law in the interest of the state.

#49 Explain the role of organizations in the governmental politics model and how the behavior of government organizations create policy.

A government consists of a conglomerate of semifeudal, loosely allied organizations, each with a substantial life of its own. Government leaders do sit formally, and to some extent in fact, on top of this conglomerate. But governments perceive problems through organizational sensors. Governments define alternatives and estimate consequences as organizations process information. Governments act as these organizations enact routines. Government behavior (policy) can therefore be understood as outputs of large organizations functioning according to standard patterns of behavior or standard operating procedures. To be responsive to a broad spectrum of problems, governments consist of large organizations among which primary responsibility for particular areas is divided. Each organization attends to a special set of problems and acts in quasi-independence on these problems. But few important problems fall exclusively within the domain of a single organization. Thus government behavior relevant to any important problem reflects the independent output of several organizations, partially coordinated by government leaders.

#50 Describe the relationship between an organizations standard operating procedure and the actual application of power.

Without these standard procedures, it would not be possible to perform certain concerted tasks. Assured performance requires clusters of rehearsed SOPs for producing specific actions. SOPs constitute routines for dealing with standard situations.