Contents of Discussion



An Insight into De-Forestation
Endangered Species
More Endangered Species (A List Of)
Our Beautiful World
Air Pollution and De-Forestation a List of Countries and States Responsible
Your Requests, Documentation on Endangered Species:-
The Bald Eagle, (still to come)
The Black Footed Ferret
The Taiwan Black Bear
Tigers
The Manatee
The Condor
The White Rhino
The White Wolf
The Bison
The Peregrin Falcon
The Panda


There is still so much destruction of the worlds resources like forests, the daming of rivers, the destruction and exploitation of wildlife, and the destruction of wildlife habitat, which can never be replaced, many species of animals or insects cannot adapt to this change in their environment, this change is so traumatic for many that there is only one outcome for them -- death, and extinction for some species. This has to STOP, so many animals have died so much habitat has been lost so many insects that are valuable to the environment just for their existance are gone because they are unable to survive, the list goes on and on. It covers other species too mammals, reptiles and what about native people that live and depend on the forests for their survival, they know nothing else. So we some people saying that it is their own fault. But that is just not true, they have existed this way for hundreds of years, if roles were reversed how would we feel? How would you feel, if someone came into your neighbourhood and started tearing down the houses? Your homes! The forest or jungle is their home, it is their way of life, and imagine all the knowledge they have about plants and how to use them, we can learn from them, that is how we have attained so much of our current knowledge on some todays famous drugs.
So many of our modern age medicines have come from plants, from all over the world, plants from the rain forests and the jungles, let me ask you a question for those that have seen the movie "Predator" with Arnold Schwarzenegger, how many people remember the beautiful jungle that it was set in? well guess what, it is completely gone the whole lot has been felled, cleared, eradicated! What if the cure for cancer had been there or for aids but had not been found yet? It is too late now, it is gone!
Or what about that delightful cartoon movie "Ferngully", Ferngully is a real place ( here is a photo of it) it is in Victoria Australia, this movie was made to hope fully protect this last patch of untouched forest, it was very old and very beautiful and in danger of being cleared, the last i heard this beautiful heritage, our childrens heritage, was gone, cleared, it was the last of its kind in Victoria Australia.

An Insight into De-Forestation



Czechoslovakia:- Forests covered 35 percent of Czechoslovakia's land area. Two thirds of the forests are made up of coniferous trees and one third of hardwood trees. Forest products are used in the furniture, cellulose, paper and construction industies. Czechoslovakia produced almost all of the wood used domestically. In the 1980's Czechoslovakia's forests like thos of other Central European countries, were seriously damaged by acid rain. This problem was especially acute in Czechoslovakia because of the country's heavy reliance on high sulfur coal for home heating and power generation. In 1983 the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences issued a report predicting that by the year 2000 between 45 and 60 percent of the countries forest will be degraded or destroyed.

Haiti:- Long-term deforestation, which has intensified since the 1960's, has begun to affect the weather in Haiti, decreasing rainfall and increasing temperatures. Wood is a cash crop, used for cooking by all segments of society and as fuel in all kinds of urban light industry. Deforestation has also contributed to severe topsoil erosion, which is aggravated by the hilly terrain.

Hawaii:- During the 19th century, indiscriminate cutting of Hawaii's trees for fuel and timber led to total exhaustion of the forests and loss of cover for waterwheds. Only since 1940 has tree farming to produce commercial timber been undertaken on a small scale.

Gabon:- Nearly 80 percent of Gabon is covered by forests, and until the late 1960's wood and wood products were Gabon's main export. By the early 1980's the coastal forests were largely depleteted; exploitation of the interior forests was hindered by lack of transportation. It is only a matter of time before that obstical is overcome.

Panama:- About half the farmers in Panama are squatterswho cut and burn a forested area, plant crops on the cleared land for a few seasons, and then abandon it until it recovers its fertility. Panama ha suffered increasing deforestation at the hands of the peasant squatters clearing land for subsistence s farming. This ecological destructive activity, which has been ecouraged by the Panamanian government as a cheap alternative to major land reform, poses a serious threat to the water supplies required for sustained viability of the Panama Canal.
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Endangered Species



The American alligator has been widely hunted for its tough and attractive hide. Moreover much of its marshy habitat has been drained and many thousands of its young have been sold as pets. Because of these factors, the American alligator population had been greatly reduced over much of its range, but it has made a strong comeback under protection.
A pigmy buffalo of special interest because it is the smallest of all the wild cattle living in the world today. It scarcely ever exceeds 30 inches (76 cm) in hight at the shoulder. A native of Sulawesi, the animal is shy and elusive, but like other wild buffalo it can be dangerous when wounded or attacked. Its closest relative is the tamarao, a large pigmy buffalo of the Philipine Islands. Both species are classified by international conservation organizations as endangered.
The aye-aye, D. madagascariensis, is a primate found in bamboo forests of Madagascar. It is an endangered species because of the destruction of its habitat.
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The cheetah a member of the cat family, and the fastest land animal in the world. It is also known as the hunting leopard and guepard. The common cheetah, is found in the open grasslands of Africa and once ranged accross Asia to India. The king cheetah, is found only in Zimbabwe. Cheetah's are now almost extinct in Asia, and they are becomming increasingly rare in Africa.
Chimpanzees, widely used in behavioral and medical research, are able to communicate using various signs and symbols. In 1989 the U. S. government proposed that the wild chimpanzee, whose numbers are declining, be declared endangered. This ruling would restrict the importation of wild chimpanzees into the United States but would allow research on captive animals to continue.
The California condor, G. californianus, largest North American bird of prey, is now nearly extinct. Hopes for its survival lie in the breeding programs run by the San Diego and Los Angeles zoos.
Cranes are long-legged, bulky, omnivorous wading birds. The sandhill crane, G. canadensis (foreground), is fairly common in North America, but the whooping crane, G. americanus (rear), is an endangered species, with a population of only about 80 birds.
The Russian desman, D. moschata, native to the river regions of the western USSR, sometimes swims snorkellike, with only the tip of its long snout above the water. The desman is an endangered species because it is hunted for its otterlike fur.
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Although once abundant, some eagles are becoming rare and face extinction. One rare species is the bald eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus, the national emblem of the United States. Although protected by law, some large eagles are killed by farmers and gamekeepers or captured for use in falconry. In addition, the bald eagle, like other birds, has been affected by the widespread use of pesticides that, ingested, can weaken eggs.
The falcons' only serious enemy is humankind. For many years falcons were considered vermin because they were thought to exact a heavy toll on chickens and other livestock. In recent times pesticides have been responsible for decimating and endangering several species. Research has shown that organochlorine pesticides (DDT, dieldrin) reduce the ability of certain birds to produce sufficient calcium for their eggs; consequently, the eggs are thin shelled and extremely susceptible to breakage. At least one of the living species is considered endangered, the Seychelles kestrel, F. araea, and one other species, the Mauritius kestrel, F. punctatus, may be extinct.
The endangered status of the black-footed ferret, M. nigripes, probably results from reduced populations of prairie dogs, its main prey. These ferrets may use prairie dog burrows for shelter.
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The largest living lizard, the Komodo dragon, Varanus komodoensis, attains a total length of up to 3 m (10 ft) and an average weight of 136 kg (300 lb). These giant lizards live only in the vicinity of Indonesia, for example, on Komodo island, for which they are named. These reptiles are endangered and are under strict protection by the Indonesian government.
The white Arabian oryx, Oryx gazella leucoryx, native to Sudan deserts, has horns that are almost as long as the oryx is tall. Their long, slender horns, like twin spires, are so sharp that they have been used to make spear points, and the tough skin has been made into shield covers. The Arabian and scimitar-horned oryxes are listed as endangered species.
The Indo-Pacific ridley, L. olivacea, a sea turtle, has been exploited for leather and oil in such areas as the Pacific coast of Mexico. The Indo-Pacific ridley, Lepidochelys olivacea, occurs in parts of the Indian, this turtle is mainly vegetarian, but shellfish and sea urchins are reported to be in its diet. The population of this overexploited species has been seriously depleted. The Atlantic ridley, L. kempi, the smallest of the Atlantic sea turtles and an endangered species, is found from the Gulf of Mexico northward along the Atlantic coast to Massachusetts.
Baleen whales are generally large whales that feed primarily on plankton; they lack teeth but instead have plates of baleen, or whalebone, on the upper jaw, which filter small organisms from the water. The right whale, Balaena glacialis (top), has a bonnet, or horny protuberance, on its head, and may exceed 15 m (50 ft) in length. The finback whale, B. pyhsalus (bottom), has a gray-to-black body with a white underside and may grow to 24 m (80 ft); the similarly colored humpback whale, Megaptera novaeanglia (center), may reach 15 m (50 ft). Largest of all whales -- and the largest animal known -- is the blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus (not shown), which may reach 30 m (100 ft) with an estimated weight in excess of 130 metric tons.
Whales are divided into two groups: the Odontoceti, or toothed whales, and the Mysticeti, or baleen whales. The toothed whales are predators with sharp teeth and wide throats. They include the narwhal, Monodon monoceros (top left), a small whale with a maximum length of about 5.5 m (18 ft) excluding the male's spiral tusk, which may reach an additional 2.7 m (9 ft); the beluga, or white whale, Delphinapterus leucas (bottom left), is slightly smaller and lacks the tusk but has a similar body shape. The pilot whale, Globicephala (center left), is found in schools with several hundred members; the black-and-white killer whale, Ocrinus orca (bottom right), cooperatively hunts in packs that number from 3 to 50. Largest of the toothed whales, the sperm whale, Physeter catodon (top right), reaches a maximum size of about 20 m (65 ft) and a maximum weight of about 50 metric tons.
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More Endangered Species (A List Of)


Babirusa
Bat (some species)
Brown Pelican
Cuban Solenodon
Darter
Egret
Elephant
Elephant Shrew
Fisher (weasel family)
Frog (some species)
Galapagos Tortois
Gour
Gavial
Gorilla
Goshawk
Gree Turtle
Gyr Falcon
Hawksbill Turtle
Jaguar
Kangaroo (some species)
Kiwi
Leopard
Indian Lion
Markhor
Mussel
Osprey
Otter
Panda
Prairie Dog
Pup Fish
Sable
Seal (some species)
Siberian Tiger
Tapir
Tasmanian Devil
Tiger
Wallaby (some species)
Please feel free to request more information on any of the above species.
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Our Beautiful World



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Air Pollution and De-Forestation a List of Countries and States Responsible


De-Forestation


Africa
Bhutan
Brazil
Burma
Central America
China
Diminican Republic
Ethiopia
Gabon
Ghana
Great Britain
Iran
Micronesia
Nepal
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Panama
South Africa
Sri-Lanka
Thailand
Tripura
Zambia

Air Pollution


Copper Basin, Tennessee
British Columbia
Los Angeles
New Jersey
Germany
Canada
Minnesota
New Brunswick
New Mexico
Norway
Ontario
Quebec
Vermont
Wisconsin

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Your Requests, Documentation on Endangered Species:-



The Bald Eagle


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The Black Footed Ferret


The black-footed ferret is a small weasel-like animal with a black mask around its eyes and black legs and feet. It is between 18 and 22 inches long, including its tail. It weighs up to 2 1/2 pounds.
The black-footed ferret lives almost exclusively in prairie dog towns of the Great Plains. Prairie dog towns are a community network of prairie dog dens and tunnels that can be hundreds of acres. Black-footed ferrets also den in prairie dog burrows. Prairie dogs, which are often equal or larger in size than the ferret, make up 90% of the its diet. Its diet is occasionally supplemented with rabbits and rodents.
Black-footed ferrets are thought to be solitary hunters which use a range of around 100 acres each. A male ferret's territory may overlap that of several females with which he mates. Females raise alone a litter of about three to four kits. Black-footed ferrets live underground as much as possible in order to avoid their natural enemies, which are hawks, bobcats, owls, badgers and coyotes.
The decline of the black-footed ferret is almost entirely due to government-sponsored poisoning of prairie dog towns and development of farms, roads, towns, etc. over prairie dog colonies. The highly specialized ferret relies on prairie dogs for food and shelter. Prairie dog towns have been reduced by 98% since the turn of the century, though recent studies have proven that the grass-eating prairie dogs are not significant competition with livestock for forage. The final blow to the wild ferrets came in the form of canine distemper, which is always fatal. Any unknown groups of ferrets that may remain in the wild are almost certainly inbreeding.
Recently considered by many to be the most endangered mammal in North America, the black-footed ferret is listed as an endangered species by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service and the IUCN Red Data Book. Sightings of black-footed ferrets are frequently reported, but in most cases these can be traced to escaped domestic ferrets, which are often mistaken for black-footed ferrets.
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The Taiwan Black Bear


The Asiatic black bear's scientific name, Ursus thibetanus, literally means "moon bear of Tibet". This bear is also commonly called the Tibetan black bear, the Himilayan black bear or the white-breasted bear due to its colouration.
Paleontologists believe that Asiatic black bears and American black bears may have shared a common ancestor as recently as 3 to 4 million years ago.
The Asiatic black bear lives in the moist broad-leafed forests which occur across much of southern Asia (see map). This area includes the countries of Pakistan, Afghanistan, eastward into northern India, China and finally across southeast Asia. Separate populations are also known to be present in eastern Russia, Korea, Taiwan and Japan. In parts of their range, they share the habitat with brown bears.
At present, there is no firm estimate of how many Asiatic black bears are still alive in the wild. While it is obvious that there are still a significant number of these bears still present, it is also clear that their future is extremely clouded and in doubt.
Throughout most of their range, conservation efforts on behalf of the Asiatic black bear are almost nonexistent and where there is supposedly legal protection, it is rarely enforced.
The Asiatic black bear is a large mammal whose size and weight show high variability depending on food availability, climatic conditions, etc.
In general, adult Asiatic black bears have an average length between 140 and 165 centimeters (4 1/2 and 5 1/2 feet long). The weight of a Asiatic black bear, which is highly variable, normally ranges from 90 to 115 kilograms (200 to 255 pounds). A very large adult male Asiatic black bear may weigh over 180 kilograms (400 pounds) prior to hibernation when it has its full fat resources. Males are generally larger than females within a specific geographic area.
The lifespan of Asiatic black bears in the wild can be twenty-five years or more.
The Asiatic black bear still remains an active carnivore even though it has now adapted so that it eats both meat and plant material.
Seasonal availability and geographic location are the biggest factors determining the supplementary food sources of the bears. Eating virtually anything edible, their diet also consists of termites, beetles, larvae, honey, fruits, nuts and berries.
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The Tiger


Tigers are the biggest cats in the world. They live in steamy hot jungles as well as icy cold forests. There are five different kinds or subspecies of tiger alive in the world today. These tigers are called Siberian, South China, Indochinese, Bengal, and Sumatran. Their Latin name is Panthera tigris. Tigers are an endangered species; only about 5,000 to 7,400 tigers are left in the wild. Three tiger subspecies, the Bali, Javan, and Caspian tigers have become extinct in the past 70 years.

BENGAL (INDIAN) TIGER--alive minimum--3,060 alive maximum--4,735

SIBERIAN TIGER--alive minimum--437 alive maximum--506

SOUTH CHINA (AMOY) TIGER--alive minimum--20 alive maximum--30

SUMATRAN TIGER--alive minimum--400 alive maximum--500

INDO-CHINESE TIGER--alive minimum--1180 alive maximum--1790

The future of the tiger, the biggest of the cats, is critically threatened by the use of tiger parts in traditional Far Eastern medicine, especially in China, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan. Bones of tigers are believed quite erroneously, to contain medicinal qualities to cure rheumatism and arthritis; the brain is erroneously thought to help against laziness and pimples; the nose epilepsy and the whiskers toothache. Tiger penis is thought to be an aphrodisiac. Though no such powers have ever been established, the demand for medicines containing tiger products continues to threaten the very existence of this incomparable animal.
Most tigers are tawny brown in color with dark stripes and whitish stomachs. Reports and records indicate however, that a few wild tigers have been seen in unusual colors, including all white and all black .
A mutation of the Bengal subspecies, white tigers have dark brown or reddish brown stripes on a white ground-color. White tigers are just white-colored Bengal tigers, they are not a separate subspecies of tiger, and they are not albinos. They have blue eyes, a pink nose, and creamy white fur with chocolate colored stripes. White tigers are only born when two tigers that both carry the unusual gene for white coloring mate. Wild white tigers are very rare, and today they can only be seen in zoos.
White tigers showing no stripes have been recorded. A "wholly white tiger, with the stripe-pattern visible only under reflected light, like the pattern of a white tabby cat, was exhibited in the Execter Change Menagerie in the early part of the nineteenth century and described by Hamilton Smith" (Pocock, 1939: p 202). Another citing of a "tiger without stripes" was reported by Sagar and Singh (1989) from Similipal Reserve, Orissa.
Melanistic or black tigers have tawny, yellow or white stripes on a black ground color. In October 1992 the skin of a melanistic tiger was recovered from smugglers at Tis Hazari. The skin measured eight and a half feet and was displayed at the National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi in February of 1993 (Kumar, 1993). The existence of black tigers without stripes has been reported, but has never been substantiated by specimens or photographs.
 Adult tigers are solitary animals that establish their territories in areas with enough prey, cover and water to support them. The difficulty of locating prey in tiger habitat makes it more efficient for tigers to hunt alone. As a result, they do not tend to form social groups like lions. A female tiger and her cubs are the exception to this, and will form a family group for 2 to 3 years, until the cubs are able to fend for themselves.
 The territory of a tiger usually ranges in size from about 10 to 30 square miles (26-78 sq. km), although the territory of a Siberian tiger may be as large as 120 square miles (310 sq. km). The size of a tiger's territory depends on the amount of prey available. Tiger territories are not exclusive. Several tigers may follow the same trails at different times, and a male's territory usually overlaps those of several females.
Both male and female tigers spray bushes and trees along their route with a mixture of urine and scent gland secretions. This is a way of declaring their territory. They also leave scratch marks on trees, and urinate or leave droppings in prominent places.
 Over much of the tiger's broad geographic range, wild pig, wild cattle and several species of deer are its major prey. All prey are forest or grassland ungulates that range in size from 65 to 2,000 pounds (30-900 kg). Tigers are ambush hunters, stalking their prey, approaching as closely as possible, and then charging the animal from behind. They usually bite the neck or throat of their prey. The neck-bite, which severs the spinal cord, is typcially used on small or medium sized prey, while the throat bite, which causes suffocation, is used on larger animals.After killing their prey, tigers drag the animal to a safe place, consuming it over the course of several days. Typically, wild tigers gorge themselves on fresh kills, and can eat as much as 40 pounds (18 kg) of meat at one time. Several days may pass before they are hungry enough to hunt again.
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The Manatee


A mammalian order, Sirenia comprises two living families: the dugongs, or sea cows, family Dugongidae, with one species, Dugong dugon; and the manatees, family Trichechidae, with three species in the genus Trichechus. Steller's sea cow, Hydrodamalis stelleri, was a species of dugong found in the Arctic in 1741 by the explorer Vitus Bering but exterminated by 1768 through overhunting. Once widely distributed, sirenians are now confined to tropical coastal waters and Estuaries (marine and freshwater).
Sirenians are fishlike in shape, and the body is almost devoid of hair. The forelimbs are flippers, and the tail is a horizontally flattened fin; hind limbs and dorsal fins are absent. The eyes are small, the ears are not external, and the nostrils can be closed by sphincters. Sirenians breathe by frequent visits to the surface. They graze on aquatic vegetation. Dugongs grow up to 4m (13 ft) in length and weigh almost 900 kg (2,000 lb). The manatees reach 4.5m (15 ft) in length and weigh up to 1,600 kg (3,500 lb). They are less adapted to aquatic life than the dugong, and they have some body hair and have nails at the tips of their flippers; the nails aid in food gathering. The shape of the tail is also different. Dugongs and manatees mate in February and March in shallow water, the females lying on their backs. The gestation period lasts about a year. The young are suckled from two mammary glands placed high on the torso. This practice may have given rise to the siren and mermaid myths. Both dugongs and manatees are greatly reduced in number, with some species nearing extinction.
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The Condor


The condor is a large, extremely rare VULTURE in the family Cathartidae, order Falconiformes. They usually feed on dead animals, but also have been known to attack live prey. The two kinds of condor are the California condor, Gymnogyps californianus, and the Andean condor, Vultur gryphus. The Andean condor, native to western and southern South America, is the world's heaviest flying bird of prey, averaging 9 to 11.25 kg (20 to 25 lb) in weight. It reaches a length of 1.4 m (54 in), has a wingspan of 3 m (10 ft), and is mostly black. The California condor, native to the coastal mountains at the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley, is slightly smaller and is dark grayish brown, with an orange head. Once fairly abundant, both condors are now endangered species. Many were hunted; others were killed by eating poisoned carcasses of wolves and coyotes set out by farmers. Because condors lay only one or two eggs every other year, their population growth is slow. To save the California condor from extinction, in 1979 a consortium of federal, state, and private organizations initiated a rescue program that involved taking eggs from nests in the wild and incubating and breeding the young birds. In 1985 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, a sponsor of this rescue program, announced that all wild California condors would be brought into captivity. In 1987 the last wild California condor was captured, and all California condors now live in captivity. The Fish and Wildlife service has set aside the Bitter Creek National Wildlife Refuge to serve as forage grounds for condors in the future. Condors have been bred in captivity, and two were released into their former habitat in early 1992, in the first step of reintroducing them to the wild.
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The The White Rhino


The once numerous rhinoceros family, Rhinocerotidae, in the order Perissodactyla, now contains only five living species. All are threatened with extinction, some imminently. Rhinoceroses are large mammals with large heads, small eyes, one or two horns on the snout, and three toes on each foot. All but the Sumatran rhino are virtually hairless except for the tip of the tail and a fringe on the ears. The Sumatran rhino is covered with a fairly dense coat of hair and is related to the extinct long-coated woolly rhino, Coelodonta antiquitatis, of Ice-Age Europe. The Indian and Javan rhinos are one-horned; the other three species are two-horned. The rhino's horn is composed of keratin, as is the cow's horn, but unlike the cow's horn it is of a fused, fibrous construction and solid throughout, with no hollow for a core of bone. The fibers represent greatly modified hairs. The horn is attached to the skin and is supported by a raised, roughened area on the skull. Because many Asians, particularly the Chinese, believe the rhino horn has aphrodisiacal properties, the horns are widely sought after, and this demand accounts for much of the illegal killing of rhinos. The three species of Asiatic rhinos include the Indian rhino, Rhinoceros unicornis, and the nearly extinct Javan rhino, R. sondaicus; the former, native to northeastern India, is now found in only a few protected areas; the Javan rhino, once distributed across southeastern Asia into the East Indies, now survives only in a small preserve at the tip of the island of Java. The Sumatran rhino, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, is now confined to a few widely scattered areas in southeastern Asia and in the East Indies. The two species of African rhinos are the black rhino, Diceros bicornis, and the white rhino, Ceratotherium simum. The latter is believed to have received its name from a mistranslation of the Afrikaans word for "wide," referring to its lips, rather than to its color, which varies from brown to gray. The living rhinoceroses range from 2 to 4.2 m (6.5 to 14 ft) long, from 1 to 2 m (40 to 80 in) high at the shoulders, and from 1 to more than 3 tons in weight. Extinct rhinoceroses include the largest land mammals that ever lived. Baluchitherium, which lived in Asia during the Oligocene and early Miocene (from about 37 million to 25 million years ago), reached 7 m (23 ft) in length--including a 1.2-m (4-ft) head--and 5.4 m (18 ft) in height at the shoulders.
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The White Wolf


Possibly no animal has been so misunderstood, feared, hated, and persecuted throughout history as the wolf. The gray wolf, also called the timber wolf, is the largest of about 41 wild species within the dog family, Canidae, of the order Carnivora. With the exception of the red wolf of southeastern Texas and southern Louisiana, all living wolves are considered a single species, Canis lupus. The red wolf, Canis niger, is similar to but smaller than the gray wolf and is intermediate in many characteristics between gray wolves and coyotes; indeed it has been suggested that the red wolf originated as a fertile cross between gray wolves and coyotes. Recognized subspecies of the gray wolf number 24 from the New World and 8 from the Old World, but most contemporary taxonomists believe that this number is excessive.
Characteristics
The size of wolves varies with geographic locality. Adults range from about 127 to 164 cm (5 to 6.5 ft) from nose to tip of tail, from 65 to 90 cm (26 to 36 in) high at the shoulders, and from 18 to 80 kg (40 to 175 lb) in weight. The red wolf is at the lower end of this range, seldom exceeding 30 kg (66 lb) in weight. Coat colors vary from pure white, which is most common in the far north, through mottled gray to brown or black. Grizzled gray is the most common color. The red wolf is most often a reddish tan, but other colors occur frequently, including grayish brown and nearly solid black. Wolves are distinguished from all breeds of dogs by characteristics of the skull, particularly the orbital angle, which is the angle formed between lines drawn across the top of the skull and the side of the skull at the eye socket. This angle is larger (53 deg or more) in dogs, and smaller (45 deg or less) in wolves.
Occurrence
Wolves can live in a variety of habitats, ranging from arctic tundra to forest and prairie, if suitable prey is present. They are absent from deserts and the highest mountains. At one time the wolf occurred throughout most of the Northern Hemisphere north of 20 deg north latitude, or approximately from the Arctic to south central Mexico. Attempts to exterminate the animal have reduced this range considerably. In the Old World wolves still exist in the Soviet Union, China, northern India, and eastern Europe and, very small numbers in western Europe and Scandinavia. Most New World wolf populations are in Canada and Alaska, where they appear relatively stable. A small population exists in Mexico. Of the 48 contiguous states only Minnesota currently has a wolf population large enough to maintain itself. The U. S. government reports that a few wolves live on Isle Royale in Lake Superior and in Michigan, Montana, and Wisconsin; scattered wolves have been sighted elsewhere. Government plans to reintroduce wolves into what was once their native habitat have met with opposition, particularly from ranchers and hunters, who fear the wolves' killing of livestock and game.
Social Behavior
The basic social unit of wolf populations is the pack, which usually consists of a mature male and female plus offspring one or more years of age. Pack size can reach 36, but usually 2 to 8 individuals are present. Each pack ranges over its own area of land, or territory--which may vary from 130 to 13,000 sq km (50 to 5,000 sq mi)--and will defend all or much of this area against intruders. Members form strong social bonds that promote internal cohesion. Order is maintained by a dominance hierarchy. The pack leader, usually a male, is referred to by behaviorists as the alpha male. The top-ranking (alpha) female usually is subordinate to the alpha male but dominant over all other pack members. When two wolves meet, each shows its relationship to the other by indicating dominance or submission through facial expression and posture. Additional modes of wolf communication are howling and other vocalizations and scent marking. One function of howling is to communicate position or assemble the pack; advertisement of territory to neighbors is probably another. Scent marking involves deposition of urine or feces on conspicuous objects along travel routes, usually by dominant wolves. This behavior appears to function in territory maintenance and in intrapack communication. During the course of each year wolf packs alternate between a stationary phase from spring through summer and a nomadic phase in autumn and winter. Activities during the stationary phase involve caring for pups at a den or homesite. During summer most movements are toward or away from the pups, and adults often travel and hunt alone. By autumn pups are capable of traveling extensively with the adults, so until the next whelping season the pack usually roams as a unit throughout its territory in search of prey. In tundra areas wolf packs follow herds of caribou in their annual migrations.
Life Cycle
Usually only the highest ranking male and female in a pack will breed. The breeding season can vary from January in low latitudes to April in high latitudes. Pups are born about 63 days after breeding; an average litter is 6 pups. By the third week the deciduous, or baby, teeth appear. The mother wolf stays close to her young for the first 2 months while other pack members bring food. Pups are weaned at about the fifth week. After several weeks at the den, pups are moved to their first ground nest or homesite. Movement to new homesites becomes more frequent as the pups mature. Pups grow rapidly and approach adult size by autumn or early winter. Sexual maturity usually is attained at 2 years. In large packs, however, it is doubtful that many wolves breed at that age. Some wolves leave their packs to become lone wolves. Loners may start their own packs if a mate and a vacant area can be found. The major prey of wolves are large hoofed mammals, including deer, moose, elk, caribou, bison, musk-oxen, and mountain sheep. Beaver is eaten when available. In summer a variety of smaller foods, such as small rodents and berries, supplement the diet. Animals killed are usually young, old, or otherwise weaker members of their populations because they are easiest to capture. Most pursuits of prey range in length from 100 m (110 yds) to 5 km (3.1 miles). Healthy wolves rarely, if ever, attack humans. Mortality factors affecting wolves include persecution by humans, killing by other wolves, diseases, parasites, starvation, and injuries by prey. Probably few wolves live more than 10 years in the wild.
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The Bison


A bison is either of two existing species of the wild cattle genus Bison. One, commonly but incorrectly known as the buffalo, is the American bison. The other, the European species, is the wisent. The bull of the American buffalo, Bison bison, may weigh more than 900 kg (about 2,000 lb) and stand more than 1.9 m (6 ft) high. The massive head and forequarters are covered with long hair, and the body slims down toward the hindquarters, which are covered with shorter hair. The female of the species is somewhat smaller. Both sexes have horns, but those of the male are more massive. During the breeding season, July and August, bulls leave their bachelor groups and mingle with the cow-calf herds. The strongest bulls tend individual cows until copulation is completed. A single calf is born after a gestation period of nine months. The bison was a principal resource of the Plains Indians, furnishing them with food, skins for shelter and boats, bones for tools and utensils, and "buffalo chips" (dung) for fuel. Few wild animals have undergone a more devastating encounter with humans than the bison. The grasslands from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains were the home of 30 million prairie bison when white settlers first arrived. These numbers were reduced to about 500 near the end of the last century, and then slowly increased to an estimated 35 to 50 thousand on refuges and ranches today.
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The Peregrin Falcon


Certain species of falcons are also known as hobbies, kestrels, falconets, or the merlin (pigeon hawk); and nine or ten species in four different genera are called caracaras. In falconry, only the female peregrine (duck hawk), Falco peregrinus, is properly called a falcon; in strict falconry usage the term may be applied to other birds only in combination with additional descriptive words. Similarly, the male peregrine is called a tiercel, but the name may be applied to other male falcons with suitable qualifying terms. Falcons are strong, fast fliers with great aerial agility. They seldom soar in the manner of hawks. The peregrine has been clocked at 290 km/h (180 mph) in a stoop, or dive. This speed and agility make falcons successful hunters of birds, reptiles, and small mammals. A number of species, however, are insectivorous or eaters of carrion. Although falcons strike or grasp their prey with their sharp claws, they generally kill the captured prey with their beaks. The short-winged hawks kill with their claws. Falcons are usually solitary or live in pairs. They nest in trees or on cliffs and will often occupy the nests of other species of birds. Females generally lay two to six eggs, and both the male and female incubate the eggs and care for the young. The falcon passes through four distinct periods during its life cycle. The length of each period varies among the species and with the size of the birds. The nestling period occupies the time from hatching to first flight. During this time the young bird grows rapidly and gains all its feathers. The post-nestling stage is the fledgling. During this period the parents hunt food for the young falcon. When the bird leaves the nest to be on its own, it is considered a juvenile. The juvenile period lasts until the falcon reaches sexual maturity, when it is considered an adult. Falcons seldom live more than 20 years. The falcons' only serious enemy is humankind. For many years falcons were considered vermin because they were thought to exact a heavy toll on chickens and other livestock. In recent times pesticides have been responsible for decimating and endangering several species. Research has shown that organochlorine pesticides (DDT, dieldrin) reduce the ability of certain birds to produce sufficient calcium for their eggs; consequently, the eggs are thin shelled and extremely susceptible to breakage. At least one of the living species is considered endangered, the Seychelles kestrel, F. araea, and one other species, the Mauritius kestrel, F. punctatus, may be extinct.
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The Panda


The giant panda, Ailuropoda melanoleuca, which looks like a bear, has been classified in the bear family, Ursidae; it also has been placed in the raccoon family, Procyonidae. The giant panda and the red panda, Ailurus fulgens, are now considered by many authorities distinct enough to be classified in their own family, Ailuridae. The giant panda inhabits cool, damp bamboo forests in the mountains of central China near the Tibetan border, where it is generally found at elevations of 1,500 to 4,000 m (5,000 to 13,000 ft). Its thick, woolly coat is brownish black or black and white, the latter often with a yellowish tinge. The darker color forms patches around the eyes, covers the ears, legs, and chest, and forms a band across the shoulders. Giant pandas grow to 1.5 m (5 ft) long, plus a short, 16-cm (6-in) tail, and weigh 150 kg (330 lb) or more. They may feed on several kinds of plants and even an occasional small animal, but bamboo constitutes the major part of their diet. Mating takes place in April or May, and one or two young are born, usually in January. The red, or lesser, panda is found in the forested mountains of the Himalayas and western China at elevations of 1,800 to 4,000 m (6,000 to 13,000 ft). It has a long, dense, woolly coat of reddish brown, with lighter colored bands on the tail and dark red brown or black undersides. Its face is white, with a reddish brown stripe extending down from each eye to the lower jaw. The red panda grows to 112 cm (44 in) long, including a 48-cm (19-in) tail, and weighs up to 5 kg (11 lb). The panda population has declined sharply in the last decade, due to human encroachment of the panda's natural habitats in bamboo thickets. Pandas are being forced to move into isolated communities, resulting in inbreeding and a loss of food. The Chinese government has established 12 panda reserves with new breeding centers in an attempt to prevent the panda's extinction. Captive panda breeding has had limited success, however, because their sexual habits are poorly understood.
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