Galaxies and
Star Clusters - Are they Real?
SuperStars
In another part of this web site I introduced the concept of what I call SuperStars. These are fairly normal stars, but with extremely hot central cores, and as a result extremely high gravitational forces. In some cases these gravitational forces can be millions of times that of the sun.
When very large gravitational forces are involved, it is then necessary to consider the effect of these gravitational forces on light coming from beyond the object. This is something that astronomers have failed to do.
While it is well known that a gravitational field will bend the path of light, what is ignored is that a very large gravitational force will bend light a great deal, giving rise to a great many duplicate star images. In this page we will look at the importance of this.
For now, just remember that SuperStars are stars with very high gravitational forces.
The SuperStar and Galactic Optical Illusions
Read the title of this web page again. Provocative, isn’t it? I am going to present some ideas that will show that some, or maybe most, or even possibly all, of the clusters of stars we see in the universe—galaxies and star clusters, are simply optical images caused by the effects of gravity!
The
culprit is the gravitational deflection of light, or more simply, the gravity
lens.
Picture a solitary SuperStar off in the distance. Suppose it has the gravitational force equivalent to one million suns. What should we expect to observe?
The figure below illustrates the geometry of the gravitational lens effect of a SuperStar. The cause of the gravitational lens is a SuperStar with a large gravitational force. Behind each SuperStar is a zone I call the multiple-image funnel. This is a conical-shaped area originating at the SuperStar and extending to infinity. The apex angle of this funnel is defined by the maximum angle that light can be deflected by the SuperStar at its surface. This can be 30-40 degrees, or even more!
The gravitational lens effect of a SuperStar. The observer sees an image of a distant star in two places. One image appears near the SuperStar, and the other at its true place. This will be true for every star located in a "funnel" behind the SuperStar.
The multiple image funnel is very simple in concept. Basically, the gravity lens effect is that we will see two images of every star located within this area!
As illustrated below, there will be a path from every star within the multiple-image funnel to our point of observation that passes near and is deflected by the gravitational field of the SuperStar. This image will appear to us to be very near the SuperStar. There is also a second image that is not influenced by the SuperStar’s gravitational field that will be seen at another place in the sky. Let’s get this perfectly clear. We must see two images of every star located in the multiple-image funnel!
SuperStar Images
Of most interest to us is the gravitational lens image of SuperStars. These objects have very large gravitational forces—perhaps millions or even a billion times greater than the sun. As a result, gravitational deflection of light takes place even at great distances. A distinct image of each star will be seen near the SuperStar, as well as an image in its original position. We will see two distinct images of most of the stars located within the multiple-image funnel!
One image will be seen far from the SuperStar, and one image will appear to be near the SuperStar, but distinctly visible as a unique image. But since there are many stars within the multiple-image funnel, we will see a cluster of star images, centered on the SuperStar.
And what should we see? The
figure below is a photographic image of the
globular cluster 47 Tucanae (NGC104). This globular cluster is estimated to be 13,400 light years from
us and spans an area about the same apparent diameter as the full moon—about 30
minutes of arc. The image of 47 Tucanae
is spread over a distance of about 120 light years. This is exactly the image we would expect from a SuperStar at
this distance with a gravitational force of one billion suns! The images of
what appear to be stars would then be gravitationally deflected images of stars
located far beyond the SuperStar, in the multiple-image funnel behind it. Each
of these star images would have a non-deflected sister image far from the
SuperStar, but directly opposite it.
To answer this question, we should look a little closer at the characteristics of globular clusters. One important attribute of the star images within globular clusters is that they seem to be in random motion. That is, there is no overall rotation of the system of images as seen in galaxies, but instead relatively random motion for the individual images. This would be expected if each image were completely independent, and a mirror image of some distant star within the multiple-image funnel of the SuperStar. This feature is far less explainable if the cluster actually consisted of real stars.
A second attribute is that star images in globular
clusters are generally redder than corresponding star images in the Milky Way. This is generally considered to be an
indication of their age. It may also be
an indication of some minor redshifting of their spectrum from the
gravitational deflection, or perhaps from some other factor.
If the star images we see in globular clusters
are really optical illusions caused by the gravitational effects of the central
SuperStar, this would also provide an explanation for “blue stragglers”—blue
stars which appear within the cluster population of star images that appear to
be much younger than the surrounding stars.
If these are just images of distant stars (or perhaps quasars), the
problem of their appearance in globular clusters disappears. If not, a lot of astronomers are spending a
lot of time studying them.
A third feature of
globular clusters is the very high density of stars—far larger than that found
within other areas of the galaxy, or within distant galaxies as far as can be
determined. This high density would be
expected if what we observe is really just images of distant stars within the
multiple-image funnel. There would be
no limit to the measured density.
Star Clusters and Gravitational Lens Effects of SuperStars
There are at least four common astronomical phenomena
that can readily be explained by the gravity lens effect of SuperStars with
large gravitational forces.
Globular
Clusters
Globular clusters appear to be tightly
packed spherical collections of hundreds of thousands, or even millions, of
stars. Several hundred such clusters
have been found within our galaxy and others have been discovered in some of
the nearby galaxies as well. A cluster of star images is exactly what would be
expected from the gravity lens effect of a SuperStar located within our galaxy
with a gravitational force perhaps 20,000 times the that of the sun. The clustered images are not real stars
bound together by some attractive force, but are duplicate images of distant
stars created by the gravity lens effect of a SuperStar.
Open
Clusters
Open clusters are loose and irregular aggregations containing a few
hundred to a few thousand stars.
Individual members of the cluster are easily resolved and, in some
cases, are visible to the naked eye (Hyades, Pleiades). Over a thousand open clusters have been
cataloged, including several dozen visible to the naked eye, and many thousands
more are thought to exist. A typical
open cluster is shown below4.
Open clusters of star images are exactly what would be expected from
nearby SuperStar with a gravitational mass 20,000-500,000 times that of the
sun. More distant SuperStar in this
gravitational range would cause this cluster effect as well. However, they would be difficult to detect
due to the faintness of the resulting star images, the large angular dimensions
involved, and the many intervening foreground stars.
Stellar
Associations
Astronomers have also identified numerous star groups which, although
spread across several degrees in the heavens, are apparently related. These groupings, which may be thought of as
very large and ill-defined open clusters, are called stellar associations. In general, stellar associations have been
identified by the clustering of fairly rare star types (Type 0 and B stars, T
Tauri stars). Although only a few of
these associations have been definitely identified, it is thought that there
may be thousands of them within our galaxy.
Such aggregations have long intrigued astronomers. Based on current estimates of size and
distance, there is not enough density or mass within these systems to support
the gravitational binding of the individual stars, and yet these groupings are
clearly related. This enigma
disappears, however, when the associated star images are attributed to the
gravity lens effect. A wide scattering
of stellar images, seen as a stellar association, would be expected from
SuperStar with very large gravitational mass (over half a million times as
massive as the sun) located within our galaxy.
Elliptical
Galaxies
A typical elliptical galaxy is illustrated
below. These objects, which number in the millions throughout our
universe, are similar in appearance to a globular cluster. In most cases they
are too faint and distant for the resolution of individual stars. The angular
dimensions of these assemblages range up to two minutes of arc, and thus, at
extreme distances, these patches of light are thought to contain billions of
stars. Because of this they are called galaxies, or island universes. Such a
clustering of star images, however, is just what would be expected from the
gravity lens effect of a SuperStar with moderate gravitational mass located
very far away. This suggests the
surprising conclusion that elliptical galaxies may not be island universes at
all, but simply the gravity lens effect of remote SuperStars. We will investigate this concept in more detail
in the next few sections.
Galaxies—Island Universes or Optical Illusions?
It seems that the faint, fuzzy patches of light in the heavens known as elliptical galaxies can be explained by the gravity lens effect of distant SuperStars—an alternate explanation to the more accepted belief that these objects are aggregations of billions of stars. And while the arguments presented are quite logical, we may not yet use them to generalize for all galaxies. A purely elliptical shape is the exception—most galaxies evidence more complex structures. There are three chief classes of galaxies; elliptical, spiral and irregular.
Elliptical galaxies display a wide variety
of shapes, such as spheroidal or elliptical, much like giant globular clusters,
and are classified by their apparent degree of oblateness, from EO (perfectly
symmetrical) to E7 (elongated lens-shaped systems). Spiral galaxies come in a
variety of shapes as well.
Typical examples of various types of
galaxies are shown below.
Typical galaxies, illustrating the diversity of their form. These could be optical illusions caused by the gravitational lens effect.
Can these diverse galactic structures be attributed to the gravity lens effect? I believe so. If an image of a galaxy is reflected multiple times by more than one SuperStar, and if the SuperStar is rotating, a wide variety of shapes would be expected. At this time I believe that most—if not all—galactic images are really optical illusions.
Reflected Images
In the previous paragraphs only the spherical form of the elliptical galaxy (similar in shape to globular clusters) was considered. But most elliptical galaxies have a somewhat oval or lens-like shape. Can these also be optical illusions? In a word, yes, but in a manner which at first is not obvious.
The key to understanding elongated
elliptical galaxies is that we are not observing a galaxy directly, but instead
we see an image that has been deflected by the gravity lens effect of a
SuperStar. This deflection distorts the original spherical image, as
illustrated below. The degree
of elongation is dependent on the amount of deflection. Thus, all types of elliptical galaxies can
be considered to be the result of the gravity lens effect of a distant
SuperStar, regardless of their shape.
The fascinating possibility that elliptical galaxies may be optical illusions raises some interesting points for speculation. Some galaxies belong to a group termed local galaxies, so named because they appear to be relatively nearby. Our largest telescopes have been able to resolve individual stars in some of these nearby galaxies. One of the largest, as well as most spectacular, is the nearby Andromeda galaxy.
M31, the Andromeda galaxy. Could this be an optical illusion?
Is this a real aggregation of stars, a sister to our own galaxy, or is it, in fact, merely an optical illusion? Only years of study can answer this question with assurance. It seems quite possible, however, that what is actually being seen is a distorted reflection of some nearby globular cluster or elliptical galaxy, in itself an accumulation of false star images caused by the gravity lens effect centered on a gravitationally massive SuperStar.
Spiral Galaxies
The suggestion that elliptical galaxies are optical illusions would surely be suspect if there were not a similar explanation for spiral galaxies. These objects show every indication of being billions of stars in slow orbit around some central point, an observation supported by information collected about stars located within our own galaxy. Is there a gravity lens effect that could produce the diversity of shapes evidenced in spiral galaxies? Perhaps so, in the rotation of SuperStar.
A
rotating SuperStar "drags" the space surrounding it and creates a
distorted gravitational field within its influence quite unlike that of a
non-rotating object. Light passing
through this distorted field is deflected in an unpredictable manner, giving
rise to unique gravity lens effects. Somewhat like the effect you would get by
tossing a ping pong ball into a hurricane.
For example, suppose a SuperStar was
located at such a distance that the gravity lens effect caused a cluster of
star images to be visible around it. If
the SuperStar were not rotating, a symmetrical cluster of images similar in
appearance to an elliptical galaxy or globular cluster would be expected. However, if the SuperStar were rotating
about an axis directed toward the observer, there would be a distortion of the
gravity field about its axis of rotation, which would surely influence the
cluster of star images. What would be
the result? Perhaps the elegant beauty
of the spiral galaxy.
Of course this is a very simplistic explanation for what is no doubt a highly complex phenomenon. The distortion of a cluster of star images or some distant star cluster would depend on the gravitational force of the SuperStar, its rate of rotation, its axial alignment relative to our line of sight, and on the distances involved. Multiple reflections of such false images would cause further distortion, possibly giving rise to the great diversity of shapes found among the spiral galaxies. It appears that the gravitational field distortion caused by the rotation of gravitationally massive SuperStar could be the mechanism that results in the unique shapes of spiral galaxies. That is, it is quite possible that spiral galaxies are simply another manifestation of the gravity lens effect.
Irregular
galaxies pose no problem from a gravity lens standpoint, since these are
natural extensions of open clusters for very distant, very gravitationally
massive SuperStars.
Supporting Evidence
The suggestions presented in the preceding sections are, to say the least, rather controversial. They suggest that galaxies may not be immense agglomeration of stars as has been assumed, but instead may be nothing more than optical illusions created by the gravity lens effect of some distant SuperStars.
Most photographs of galaxies are of fairly long duration, to allow the faint outer portions to register on film and to show maximum dimensions. This results in overexposure of the central portion. Photographs taken with a short exposure do not show the outer stars, but generally show the presence of a bright central core (see below). The brightness and extremely high density of stars within this central core are difficult to explain in terms of clustered stars, but are a natural consequence of the gravity lens effect. Some special galactic types such as Seyfert and N-type galaxies have extremely small and intensely bright cores which almost certainly result from the gravity lens effect.
Astronomers
now studying galaxies with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) are finding what
appears to be objects at the center of most galaxies with masses millions or
billions of times larger than the sun. Usually these objects are considered to
be black holes, although as we have pointed out earlier, there is no explanation
for such massive black holes. Thus our explanation that a SuperStar with
massive gravitational force is the cause of the images we see is totally
consistent with what astronomers are finding. Therefore it is not massive black
holes at the center of galaxies, but SuperStars—fairly ordinary stars with very
strong gravitational forces.
Further confirmation is found in observations which seem to show that galaxies are in rotation. Measurement of the redshift of different portions of nearby galaxies indicate that the redshift varies across the image of the galaxy—results generally interpreted to mean that the stars which comprise the galaxy are rotating about some central point. But if the star images are really an illusion caused by the gravitational deflection of a SuperStar, there is an alternate explanation for this redshift effect. A rotating SuperStar will distort the gravitational field in its vicinity, effectively dragging the field in its direction of rotation. If the rotational axis of the SuperStar is roughly perpendicular to our line of sight, then gravitational field around the SuperStar will be approaching earth on one side and receding from earth on the opposite side. Light from distant star images that pass through the approaching gravitational field will be shifted toward the blue end of the spectrum (a blueshift). Light from distant star images passing near the opposite side pass through the gravitational field moving in a direction opposite its motion, and will experience a redshift in the spectrum of its light. Thus the apparent motion of stars around the center of a galaxy can be explained as a redshift of false images of distant stars caused by the gravitational lens effect of a rotating, gravitationally massive SuperStar.
Perhaps
the most significant supporting evidence is found in the star images that form
globular clusters and galaxies.
Astronomers have identified two distinct types of stars within these
clusters: Population I and Population II stars. Population I stars are bright stars, tending to blue in color,
with luminosities as high as 100,000 times that of the sun. Population II stars are much less bright and
generally quite reddish. A detailed
analysis of the Andromeda galaxy has found that the outer portions, the spiral
arms, are comprised primarily of the brighter Population I stars, while the
redder and less luminous Population II stars are concentrated in the spherical
nucleus of the galaxy, and occur less frequently in the spiral arms. Similar results have been obtained with
globular clusters. Such observations
would be expected if the gravity lens effect were the cause of these
images. The stars nearest the center,
where gravitational deflection is the greatest, would be both dimmer and
redder. Star images in the outer
portions, with much less deflection, would more closely mirror the true color
and brightness of the original star images.
It is important to note that the clustering of star images by a SuperStar is a direct result of the gravitational deflection of light, independent of any specific theory or equation. Both Newton's and Einstein's gravitational theories provide for the gravitational deflection of light, and thus clustering of star images. The only difference is one of scale.
Summary
The conclusions discussed in this web site are very important. Basically we have shown that SuperStars with large gravitational forces should be manifested as apparent clusters of star images due to the gravity lens effect. This phenomenon provides a logical explanation for the numerous clusters of star images seen in the heavens—from globular clusters to galaxies. In other words, it is entirely possible that star groupings are nothing more than optical illusions caused by the effects of gravity, and not real star masses. With this concept as a basis, our estimate of the number of stars in the universe begins to drop drastically.
To carry this analysis just a step further,
we might point out that there are two main parameters that determine the
clustered star image we should expect from a SuperStar—the gravitational force
generated by the SuperStar, and its distance from us. The following table
summarizes, in a general way, what we should see:
Optical Illusions caused by the gravity lens effect of a SuperStar
|
SuperStar Gravitational
Force (in solar
masses) |
Distance |
General
Appearance of Star Cluster
|
|
<100 |
Nearby |
Bright star with angular diameter up to 1”. May have unusual spectral
characteristics. |
|
|
Distant |
Same as above, except quite faint. |
|
1,000-10,000 |
Nearby |
Bright, tight cluster of star images with diameter about 1’. Some
individual stars resolvable. A typical small globular cluster. |
|
|
Distant |
Similar to above, but faint and with no resolvable star images. A
typical elliptical galaxy. |
|
100,000 |
Nearby |
Moderately compact cluster of resolvable star images, 4-10’ in
diameter. Typical globular or open cluster. May have bright central star or
core. |
|
|
Distant |
Faint elliptical galaxy 4-10’ in diameter. No resolvable stars. |
|
1,000,000 |
Nearby |
Typical open star cluster with diameter up to several degrees. |
|
|
Distant |
Open cluster, but individual star images too faint to be seen except
with largest telescopes. Possibly centered on a faint, poorly defined
elliptical galaxy. |
|
>1,000,000 |
Nearby |
Very large open cluster (Hyades, Pleiades) or stellar association,
with a bright central star or cluster. For very large gravitational masses,
the association of stars may not be obvious because of its large angular
diameter. Most stars in the association would be individually resolvable. |
|
|
Distant |
Large stellar association, but individual star images would be
extremely faint. Difficult to detect. |
Conclusions
-
The “massive black holes” thought to lie at the center of many galaxies, are not black holes at all. They are SuperStars.
-
Star clusters are not actual clusters of stars, but simply clusters of star images of distant stars caused by the gravity lens effect of SuperStars.
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