The Restoration and the Enlightenment - The Age of Reason

I. Introduction

A. In 1660 Charles II assumed throne of England, ending Puritan Protectorate; event known as Restoration

B. Following Restoration, England settled in long period of stability, lasted through most of 18th century; status quo prevailed politically and socially; also age of expansion, global influence, and change that in time brought England to brink of modern age

II. Restoration England

A. 17th century England primarily agricultural country; London was commercial, financial, political, cultural center of England

B. Charles spent much of exile in France, acquired taste for glamor, elegance, intrigue of French court; presided over a court in French style in England

C. Charles appeared cynical, lazy, and frivolous, but was actually clever and astute; rejected traditional moral codes, scandalizing most “moral” Englishmen; God’s wrath seemed to them justly around when three disasters hit England in mid and late 1660’s.

D. English at war against Dutch, and was allied with France (most powerful nation in Europe); King Charles relationship with France helped strengthen determination of Parliament to limit further power of monarchy

III. Politics and Religion in Restoration England

A. Monarchy restoration meant Parliament and Church of England restoration; traitors identified as anyone not conforming to Church

B. Parliament split into two political parties: Tories and Whigs; Tories favored monarchy, Whigs opposed monarchy

IV. The Glorious Revolution

A. James succeeded Charles, who was succeeded by William and Mary, with the help of Whig leaders; William and Mary event known as Glorious or Bloodless Revolution

B. Revolution Settlement outlined rights and powers of Parliament, specified succession of Protestant monarchs, and granted freedom of worship to most English people

V. The Monarchs of the Eighteenth Century

A. Queen Anne last of Stuart monarchs, last monarch for next half-century to take active part in government; stodgy, dull, ill, faithfully tended to her royal duties nonetheless; during reign Scotland united with England; Great Britain became union of England, Wales, Ireland, Scotland

B. Successors to Anne: two lackluster kings from German House of Hanover; both allowed Whig Parliament and ministers to handle all matters of state

C. George III ruled for sixty years, marked end of peaceful relations between monarch and Parliament

VI. The Enlightenment

A. Immanuel Kent describes 18th century: "man's emergence from his (immaturity)"; John Locke described ideal gov't, promoted gov't overthrow in times of corruption

            B. Rules of nature sought; reason, common sense applied to problems in politics

            C. Enlightenment: emphasis on intellectual freedom, human capability, and natural rights helped structure documents such as American Declaration of Independence and Constitution; life became more liberal, but later on came a revivalist movement within Church of England

VII. Upper and Middle Class Life in an Enlightened Age

A. Many in England lived well during 18th century; many structures (buildings, houses) were beautifully constructed

B. Nearly 3000 coffeehouses served as intellectual, social, and political centers for middle class Londoners

C. Craft, even ordinary things such as walls and furniture, were artistically crafted during the Enlightenment

VIII. Sources of Agricultural and Industrial Development

            A. "Revolution" occurred in agriculture and industry in referring to change

B. Most inflential of scientists was Sir Isaac Newton, which set off a movement in which many discoveries were made by astronomers, chemists, botanists, and zoologists.

C. The Royal Society, chartered by Charles II in 1662, collected and disseminated information on accomplishments of both theoretical and applied science

IX. The Revolution in Agriculture

            A. In mid-18th century, scientists discovered new ways to increase productivity

B. Farmers with small plots of land couldn't utilize new ways, causing many to move to America, large estates, and factory towns

X. The Revolution in Industry

A. Britain became pioneer in using machines and steam power to manufacture goods instead of using hands; result was laissez faire, in which government has no restriction on free operation of industry

            B. Two new classes emerged: wealthy capitalists and poor, landless laborers

C. At this time England was both richer and poorer than ever before; agitation for change spread throughout country

XI. Literature in the Age of Reason

A. Neoclassicism: belief that "rules" discovered for life and literature; public themes chosen over private themes; emotions, imaginative speculation, and expression of personal feelings avoided

B. Literature of Age of Reason split into three periods: Restoration Age (1660-1700), Augustan Age (1700-1750), Age of Johnson (1750-1798)

XII. Early Neoclassical Literature

A. During Restoration Age, drama flourished once again; comedy written in prose, drama written in heroic couplets, dominant verse form of Age of Reason

B. Both comedies of manners and heroic plays appealed primarily to elite; John Bunyan attracted wide audience with his prose

XIII. The Height of Neoclassicism

A. Augustan Age named because of imitation of Latin literature; represents zenith of Neoclassicism

B. Alexander Pope master of satiric verse; Joseph Addison and Richard Steele masters of satiric prose; Jonathan Swift wrote incisive satires

C. Neoclassicism dominated poetry and much of prose; strain of emotionalism evident in drama, works of fiction captured imaginations of large numbers of middle-class readers; domestic tragedies and sentimental comedies melodramatic and unrealistic but nonetheless emotionally satisfying and popular

XIV. From Neoclassicism to Romanticism

A. Age of Johnson period of transition in which Neoclassicism waned and first stirrings of Romanticism were witnessed; public tastes turned from classic tradition of writers of Augustan Age; Gothic theme popular near end of century

B. 18th century concern with real life reflected in great number and variety of nonfiction works: biographies, histories, philosophical works, political treatises, letters, travelogues, and memoirs

C. Poets of period best express undercurrents of Romantic fervor, writing simpler, freer lyrics on subjects close to human heart

XV. The Development of the English Language

            A. The Age of Reason

1. The exuberant Renaissance, followed by the rational, restrained Neoclassical Age, demonstrates "pendulum effect"

2. Tendency for thinkers and writers to apply newest principles of science to other aspects of life, including language apparent

            B. The Rule of Reason and the Rise of Science

1. Relative reason returned to England when William and Mary ousted James II from the throne

2. For the first time serious efforts made to standardize, refine, and improve English language

            C. The Dictionary as Stabilizer

                        1. Samuel Johnson authored A Dictionary of the English Language

            D. The Dream of "Standard English"

1. Robert Lowth published Short Introduction to English Grammar, did something for syntax, as Johnson did something for vocabulary and spelling

2. Joseph Addison and Jonathan Swift were two who wanted to "purify" English

                        3. A war of sorts existed to determine which English should be standard

            E. Literary and Scientific Vocabulary

                        1. Neoclassical writers admired Latin language enormously

2. Scientists used old and new words to express concepts and describe their discoveries

            F. English as a Mother Tongue

1. English spread into America and Australia; according to writer Bernard Shaw: "England and America are two countries separated by the same language."