The Rise of Napoleon
Napoleon was born Napoleone Buonaparte in 1769 on the island of Corsica. Corsica was an Italian island, but the French had just acquired it from the Italians shortly before Napoleon was born. Napoleon loved Corsica and dreamed of the day he could liberate it from the French. As a person, Napoleon was ambitious, clever, manipulative, shrewd, sly, devious and at times, dishonest; he wanted power, and he never let anything get in the way of what he wanted. He was very goals-oriented; he knew exactly what he wanted - to rule France and then to rule Europe.
When he was nine years old, Napoleon went off to military school in France. Although he spelled his name in the French way, the boys caught on he was not French and gave him a hard time and snubbed him because he was a "foreigner". When he left the school, he joined the French army. He became an officer, which was something that, before the Revolution, he could not have done, since he was not a French noble. He defended the Convention, not so much because he believed in its ideals as because he saw this as the way up. He did well in fighting in the war, and then he married Josephine de Beauharnais, who was a friend of one of the directors. This, plus his very real talent for planning and executing battles, won for Napoleon the Italian command. Napoleon won a victory in Italy and later, he fought against the British in Egypt. All these victories made Napoleon a well known name back in France, where people were beginning to get very sick of the Revolution and were beginning to want someone who could establish control and get things done. In 1799, Napoleon felt it was time to return to France from Egypt, as he was getting nowhere fast fighting the British.
Napoleon found the situation in France to be right for him to make a decisive political move. The Directory was shaken by a strong revival of Jacobin extremism; a new club had been started that was essentially the old Jacobin club with a new name; people feared a new Reign of Terror was about to be unleashed. Moderates wanted a strong executive to try to prevent this. The war was going badly again. Under these circumstances, Napoleon was given a rousing welcome upon his arrival in Paris. Soon he was plotting to overthrow the Directory, with the help of two of the directors. On November 9 and 10, 1799, the plot was executed. The three directors not in the plot resigned, and the legislative councils named Napoleon military commander of Paris. Napoleon then barely persuaded the councils to entrust the government to his director friends and him; those deputies that objected were forcibly removed. The Directory was dead.
Napoleon’s government
The constitution of Year VIII, drawn up after Napoleon took over France, was the fourth time the French had tried to produce a written plan for a government. The new document was referred to as the Consulate after the name of its executive branch. Napoleon was apparently very impressed by the ancient Romans as he gave his branches of government very Roman names! The executive consisted of three consuls who shared power, although Napoleon as first consul had the most power, and the other two consuls had very little. The legislative branch consisted of four bodies: the Council of State, who proposed laws; the Tribunate, who discussed the laws but did not vote; the Legislative Corps who voted on the laws but did not debate, and the Senate who could veto legislation, but that was all. If this seems terribly complex and complicated, it is because Napoleon wanted it that way - it gave him more opportunities to manipulate the deputies and get what he wanted. The core of the system was the Council of State which served as a cabinet and as a court. The other bodies just went through the motions of approving what had already been decided.
Napoleon increased his power little by little; he didn’t want the French people to catch on! that his goal was to rule France. In 1802, Napoleon had the legislators drop the ten year limit on his term as consul. He was made consul for life, with the power to choose his successor. He also received power to change the constitution any way he wanted to without asking anyone. In 1804, Napoleon had himself crowned as emperor. He had the Pope to consecrate him, and then he took the crown and placed it on his own head!
Each time Napoleon changed the constitution in a non republican way, he made the democratic gesture of asking the electorate. Each time he asked, the people voted overwhelmingly "yes". The elections were probably more than a little rigged, but there was no doubt that Napoleon was popular. After about fifteen years of revolution, uncertainty and insecurity, the French were glad to have someone take control. Besides, there was his war record - he was a hero.
Showing that he was a true child of the Enlightenment in certain aspects, Napoleon appointed men to government service based on their ability to do the job. He didn’t care about their background in terms of social class or political beliefs. He paid his officials well and gave them a chance to receive high titles if they did their work well. "Aristocracy always exists," Napoleon said once, "destroy it in the nobility, and it will remove itself to the rich and powerful houses of the middle class". The difference between Napoleon and the old system was that now the titles could be earned by hard work, so more people got an opportunity to try for them.
Napoleon’s government: law and justice
Napoleon was able to give France the single unified system of law that the revolutionaries had wanted but had been unable to give France. He created the Code Napoleon from 1804 through 1810. It declared all men equal before the law without regard to rank or wealth, and it guaranteed all the right to follow the occupation of their choice and to choose their own religion. Since Napoleon thought the state was superior to the individual in most cases, the Code Napoleon stopped short of giving the French complete political liberty. It did not give the people freedom of speech, for example, or freedom of the press. Anticipating 20th century dictators, Napoleon wanted to use the press to influence the people and to achieve his own ends. In criminal cases, the judges were appointees of Napoleon and some torture was allowed. There was no such thing as "innocent until proven guilty" either. Protest against the state was not allowed and Napoleon, on more than one occasion, massacred rebels against his government. Still, the Code Napoleon was a big improvement over feudal days.
Religion and Education
Political considerations generally influenced Napoleon’s decisions about religion. He wanted to do what would make him popular. He knew Catholics had been upset ever since the ill-conceived Civil Constitution of the Clergy and the break with the Pope that that had caused. So Napoleon sought to make up with the Pope. In 1802, he and the Pope signed the Concordat. The Concordat showed Napoleon’s gift at negotiation because he got the Pope to accept almost all the things about the Civil Constitution of the Clergy that he had previously objected to. The French government agreed to end the popular election of bishops and priests. The bishops would now be nominated by the government and consecrated by the Pope. The bishops would choose the priests. The Concordat admitted the toleration of Protestants and Jews, but both of these other religions had to accept the same kind of government regulation as the Catholics did. The church accepted the loss of church lands and the abolition of the tithe. The French government would supervise the publication of papal bulls (announcements and letters), the establishment of seminaries and the content of catechisms(religious instruction that the church gives to those who wish to be confirmed). The Concordat, then, made the church a ward of the French state. While the Concordat irritated those who wished to have no religion in France, it conciliated the Catholics and made them support the government again. This was no small deal since most Frenchmen were Catholic. The Concordat remained in force until 1905.
Napoleon again anticipated 20th century dictators in using schools as a way to teach loyalty to the state. Of course, the idea that a child could be influenced in that way came from the Enlightenment. Napoleon set up a system of central lycees open only to those who could afford to pay or who could get a state scholarship. His motive was political as he wished these schools to train loyal and capable administrators for the state. The students wore uniforms and marched to drums every day. The church had nothing whatsoever to do with these schools. Napoleon did not particularly care about primary school, except that it be secular and not religious. He set up an administrative machinery for supervising all schools on a national basis.
Economics
Napoleon, in the area of economics, again did what he felt would make him popular with the people while still unifying the country. He left the peasants alone to enjoy their new found freedom except to draft them when they were needed for the war. The middle class wanted a balanced budget and an end to revolutionary experiments with money. Napoleon was able to balance the budget because he was successful in war and took money from other countries. He also greatly improved the efficiency and honesty of the tax collectors and established the semi-official Bank of France to act as the government’s financial agent. Strikes were made illegal, however, and workers had to carry a card identifying them and saying what their reputation as a worker was. Because of the continuing war, manufactured goods were needed and employment and profits were generally high.
Napoleon and his wars
We left the war back with the Legislative Assembly. You will remember that the French had declared war on Austria and later on Britain, Spain and the Netherlands. Prussia later joined this crew, and together all these countries formed the First Coalition. However, these countries didn’t like each other very much , and they were very distrustful of one another. What they had in common was that all of them, for whatever reason, did not like what was going on in France. When the war began in 1792, they were, at first, very successful, coming very close to taking Paris. But then they got distracted. As you read earlier, Austria and Prussia had to go see to Russia who was taking the opportunity of their absorption with France to take a bigger slice of Poland. They settled that and returned to the war; then the issue came up again three years later and they had to tend to it again. This time Poland was wiped off the map. Austria, Russia and Prussia split its land between them. Poland was ‘reincarnated’ in 1919. The coalition did not have a first rate commander. The best of the Prussian troops had to be left behind to control Prussia’s rebellious Polish provinces. (Naturally, the Poles didn’t like being split up between Austria, Prussia, and Russia and often revolted) By 1795, the bad feelings between the members of the coalition had reached the point that the Prussians didn’t dare attack France because the Austrians, their supposed allies, might attack them! Accordingly, Prussia decided to make a separate peace with France and did so in the Treaty of Basel (1795). Prussia gave France scattered land holdings west of the Rhine. Spain also deserted the coalition, as did the Netherlands. That left Austria and Britain still fighting France.
At this point, Napoleon was chosen to lead a campaign in Italy against the Austrians, who held land there. Napoleon beat them up there and they made peace in the Treaty of Campo Formio. Austria gave up Belgium and agreed to the establishment of two French puppet states (these were nominally independent but controlled by France). These were called the Cisalpine Republic and the Ligurian Republic.
That left only Britain in the First Coalition. Napoleon, given this command also, decided to attack Britain indirectly through Egypt, one of its colonies. This did not work very well. He had reckoned without the British navy. Napoleon kept away from Admiral Nelson, but Nelson found his French fleet and destroyed it. Nelson’s victory meant the French couldn’t get any supplies or reinforcements. After a year of trying to deal with a frustrating situation, Napoleon went home and took over France. The First Coalition ended.
In 1799, the Directory established four new satellite republics on land they either had conquered or had been given to them. These republics were called the Helvetian(Switzerland), the Batavian (Holland), the Roman and the Parthenopean (Naples). This made the enemy countries mad again so they formed a Second Coalition. This time the coalition included Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Britain. The Austrians didn’t like the French influencing Italy, and Tsar Paul of Russia was afraid Napoleon would damage Russian interests in the Mediterranean. In 1799, the Russians fought the French in Italy and Switzerland and were able to throw the French out. The satellite republics were ended. The Second Coalition reached the peak of success in August, 1799. Then the members began to distrust one another again. The Russian tsar did not trust the British around his island of Malta, and the Austrians and the British were not happy about Tsar Paul’s interest in Italy. In 1800, Napoleon crossed the Alps with an army and defeated the Austrians at Luneville and a peace treaty was signed. Austria was forced to recognize the reconstituted French satellites, and agreed that France should be involved when the map of Germany was redrawn.
Britain was again left holding the bag, being the only nation still at war with France. British taxpayers wanted out of the war; British merchants wanted to be able to trade with countries on the continent which during warfare they had not been able to do. Britain felt she had done well enough in the war to get favorable peace terms. Napoleon apparently didn’t think so. Britain, in the Peace of Amiens, had to give France part of her colonial conquests and got nothing in return. The peace, therefore, lasted only one year. Napoleon soon irritated British exporters by a more stringent tariff law, and scared Britain by his grandiose plans for a colonial empire in the New World based on Haiti and other French possessions on the North American mainland such as Louisiana. In Haiti, however, the black slaves revolted in one of the more famous slave revolts, that of Toussaint L’Ouverture. This, plus an outbreak of yellow fever, which caused the deaths of many men, caused Napoleon to think twice about his New World empire. In 1803, he decided to sell Louisiana to the United States for $16,000,000.00, one of the best real estate deals in history. Obviously Napoleon had no idea what he was selling! The cost amounted to something like 2 cents an acre, and the United States created thirteen new states out of it! By the time this purchase was completed, France and Britain were again at war. From 1803-1805, Napoleon actively prepared to invade England. He was going to do it using barges; he assembled 100,000 men and 1000 landing barges on the French side of the straits of Dover. He then sent Admiral Pierre de Villeneuve and the French fleet to the West Indies. Napoleon thought the British would be tricked into following the French fleet to the West Indies.
Well, things didn’t happen that way. Villeneuve was not able to give Admiral Nelson the slip; he docked at a friendly Spanish port instead of heading directly for the English Channel, as Napoleon had ordered. Nelson engaged the French in battle off the southwest corner of Spain, at a place called Cape Trafalgar. Nelson was killed, but not before he had destroyed half the French fleet. The Battle of Trafalgar gave the British undisputed control of the sea, and guaranteed there’d be no Napoleonic invasion of England.
The British victory at Trafalgar encouraged the formation of the Third Coalition. This one had the now familiar countries of Austria, Prussia, Russia and Britain in it. Austria was afraid that Napoleon was going to promote a major revision of the map of Germany by abolishing more than a hundred small German states. This would give the south German states more influence and it was pretty clear that Napoleon intended to dominate them against Austria and Prussia. This upset Austria because it was used to being the leading influence in south German affairs. The Prussians were upset with all the French interference in German affairs.
Napoleon beat up the Third Coalition in the most dazzling campaign of his entire career. He picked them off one at a time. First, he captured about thirty thousand Austrians who had moved west without waiting for the Russians. Then, Napoleon made hash of the Austrians and the Russians at the battle of Austerlitz. Within a month, he had forced the Austrians to sign the humiliating Treaty of Pressburg. The Austrians had to give land to a German state called Bavaria and Venetia to Italy. In October, 1806, Napoleon smashed the main Prussian armies at the twin battles of Jena and Auerstadt. Napoleon postponed, however, a final settlement with Prussia until he beat up the Russians. He did this at Friedland in June of 1807.
Napoleon was at the height of his career, when, in 1807, he took Tsar Alexander I on a little boat ride down the Niemen River near Tilsit, on the frontier between East Prussia and Russia. Here Napoleon "took Tsar Alexander for a ride" in more ways than one. Napoleon, basically, proposed dividing up Europe between the two of them. France got control of central and western Europe and Alexander got control of eastern Europe, and a share in the loot that would come out of the Ottoman Empire if it were ever beaten up. Alexander had to stop all trade with Britain and enter the war against it. This peace agreement was called the Treaty of Tilsit. Alexander believed that Napoleon would keep his part of the bargain. That was a mistake.
Meanwhile, King Frederick William III nervously paced the floor. Remember, Napoleon had not settled with him yet. He had good reason to be nervous, as at about that moment, Napoleon was taking half his land and doing other things with it. Napoleon made the "Duchy of Warsaw" out of Prussia’s Polish provinces; this duchy would be a French satellite. Prussian territory to the west of the Elbe River became Napoleon’s to do with as he wished. Napoleon also stationed troops of occupation in Prussia itself.
At this point, Napoleon was in control of Europe. Europe was divided into three parts: first, the French Empire, including France proper and any territories added since 1789; second, the satellites, some of which were ruled by Napoleon’s relatives; and third, Austria, Russia, and Prussia forced by defeat to be allies of France. The only powers left for Napoleon to deal with were Britain, Turkey and Sweden.
In central Europe, Napoleon redid the map of Germany. He reduced the number of German states and helped to end the Holy Roman Empire. Francis II, who used to be Holy Roman Emperor, now became just Emperor of Austria. To replace the Holy Roman Empire, Napoleon created the Confederation of the Rhine, which included almost all the German states except Prussia and Austria.
At this point, Napoleon became concerned that he did not have a son to succeed him, so he divorced Josephine de Beauharnais, and married Marie Louise, the daughter of the Austrian ruler, Francis II. Napoleon and Marie did have a son, but he never ruled anything!
The Continental System
The Continental System was Napoleon’s attempt to regulate the economy of the entire continent of Europe by a self-blockade that tied political, military and economic goals into a single European policy. It had two goals: to build up the export trade of France and to ruin Britain. He hoped to starve Britain out and weaken it; he’d had to give up his invasion plans before, but that didn’t mean he’d forgotten them. The defeat of the third coalition made it possible for Napoleon to do this.
The Berlin Decree, issued by Napoleon in November, 1806, forbade all trade with Britain and all commerce in British goods. It ordered the arrest of all British citizens on the continent and the confiscation of their property on the continent as well. Britain replied to this by requiring that the ships of neutral countries hoping to trade with France put in first at a British port and pay fees. This would discourage neutral countries from trading with France. Napoleon retaliated with the Milan Decree, which ordered the seizure of the ships of neutral countries that complied with the new British policy. Napoleon’s satellites and allies had to support the Continental System or else. Napoleon also expected the satellites to feed French industrial prosperity as well.
The Continental System failed miserably. It did not particularly help the French economy. The decline in overseas trade hurt French port cities; the inability to get certain raw materials because they came from abroad hurt French industry and caused unemployment, which further weakened the economy. The new French markets in Europe did not make up for the overseas trade France had had without the Continental System. It did not ruin Britain either. It hurt Britain and confronted it with an economic crisis, but the British rode it out. Markets abroad for British goods were uncertain; food imports were reduced; prices rose because of shortages, and wages did not keep up; both British factory workers and farmers suffered a lot. Britain simply grew more of what it needed and developed new markets to replace the old ones. Because of her navy, Britain was better able to do this than France. She also engaged in some smuggling to old customers on the continent. Napoleon did not have the naval force necessary to seize smugglers at sea, and he didn’t have enough honest customs officials to control the goods getting through the ports. The Continental System irritated the neutral powers and Napoleon’s allies as well.
The economic warfare between France and Britain at this point involved the United States in a minor war with Britain in 1812-1814. The United States was one of the neutral nations that wanted to trade with both sides, and both sides did things to American ships because they tried to trade with both sides. The British took ships and men, which was why the war was fought with Britain and not France, plus the fact the United States felt kindlier toward France. This little war, called the War of 1812, was indecisive.
Napoleon and the Peninsular War, 1808-1813
In 1807, Napoleon decided to impose the Continental System on Portugal, who was Britain’s ally. He also decided to occupy Spain. In 1808, he overthrew the Spanish royal family, who were relatives of Louis XVI. In the place of them, he made his brother, Joseph, the King of Spain. Then he imposed the Continental System on Spain. The Spanish were mad. Even though Napoleon tried to modernize their country, they hated him for it, because they thought he was making fun of their customs and was not respecting them as people. They began guerrilla warfare against the French; the French could never completely subdue them, and Napoleon had to leave more troops there than he wanted to, and this weakened him. The British came to help the Spaniards, and the French had to fight this little war at the same time as they invaded Russia. In 1813, King Joseph left Spain, and the British liberated it. Then they crossed the Pyrenees into France.
Napoleon invades Russia
The event that ruined Napoleon’s dreams was his disastrous Russian campaign. French actions after 1807 convinced Alexander that Napoleon was cheating on the deal made at Tilsit. Napoleon was interfering with Russian interests in Eastern Europe. Napoleon had made some territorial changes in the Duchy of Warsaw, and annexed some land in northwestern Germany. Alexander became afraid that Napoleon might come land hunting in his direction. Also he was irritated at Napoleon’s attempts to make him enforce the Continental System. These grievances led to a break between Alexander and Napoleon and to Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in 1812.
For the invasion, Napoleon assembled a Grande Armee of 700,000 men. Unfortunately for Napoleon, not all of them were French. Many were unwilling draftees from Napoleon’s conquered lands. Europeans in those days did not know a whole lot about Russia; they knew neither how big it was nor how cold. Napoleon, therefore, could not make the right preparations to invade it. He did not take the right clothes, and the men were not going to be able to live off the land the way they usually did, but Napoleon did not know that yet. He also did not know that the Russians, who knew the size of their country and its climate were two of their best advantages, always lured the enemy in by retreating into the interior of Russia. By the time the enemy caught up with them, the enemy was tired and winter was coming on! The winter then killed more of the enemy than the Russians did! Another thing Russians always did was to burn the land so that an invader could not live off the land. Napoleon began his invasion in the summer; the supply system broke down almost immediately because of the distance; the scorched earth policy of the Russians made it so the men could not live off the land and they weren’t able to get food for the horses and had to destroy a good many of them. The French kept going deeper and deeper inside Russia. Napoleon had hoped to knock Russia out in one fell blow, but the Battle of Borodino, the first one fought in Russia, was indecisive, and Napoleon continued on to Moscow, arriving there in September. Napoleon remained in Moscow, which was burning at the time, for five weeks, hoping that Tsar Alexander would come to terms. Alexander didn’t. Napoleon was at last forced to begin a retreat. His men were getting sick with typhus, a disease you get from drinking bad water; they were starving, and winter was coming on. The retreating soldiers suffered horribly in the cold as they retreated. Less than one fourth of Napoleon’s Grande Armee survived the retreat from Moscow. They had died from starvation, exposure to cold weather - some had even frozen to death-and some died of their wounds and disease. Tsar Alexander now had his troops pursue Napoleon and harass him as he left the country.
The end of Napoleon
Now that it looked like the formidable Napoleon might be able to be beaten, the nations joined together in a Fourth Coalition to go after him. This coalition had the same four countries, Austria, Russia, Prussia and Britain and a host of smaller ones. Napoleon raised a new army, but he could not so readily replace the materials he had lost in Russia. He lost the "Battle of the Nations" fought near Leipzig, and he had to retreat into France. By this time the Germans in his army were deserting him, the Italians were increasingly less reliable about supporting him, and his two losses had tarnished his image. In April of 1814, the troops of the Fourth Coalition occupied Paris. Napoleon knew it was all over, so he abdicated the throne. He then tried to commit suicide by poison, but the poison didn’t work. Napoleon was sent into exile on the island of Elba.
With Napoleon gone, the victorious coalition went and got Louis XVIII, a younger brother of Louis XVI, to rule France. Louis XVIII wanted to keep his head, so he issued the Charter of 1814 establishing a constitutional monarchy in France. The returning emigres had no such good sense; they began a new Terror against the Revolution and all its works. Then on March 15, 1815, Napoleon escaped Elba and landed in France!
Napoleon entered Paris on March 20, 1815. He rallied the French people, this time by telling them he’d give them a truly democratic government. He never had a chance. The British and the Prussians came after him and defeated him at the Battle of Waterloo, near Brussels, Belgium. This time Napoleon was sent far, far away! He was sent to the British island of Saint Helena, off the coast of South America. He died in 1821. However, the legend of Napoleon did not die. It glossed over his faults and failures and pictured him as a champion of liberalism and patriotism.
The Congress of Vienna
The statesmen of the victorious coalition gathered at Vienna to discuss peace terms for France, and to remake the map of Europe, because Napoleon had destroyed the old boundaries of the countries and they had to be negotiated again. These statesmen were a conservative group of people. They would have liked to pretend that the French Revolution had never happened; they wanted to turn the clock of time back and make everything like it was before. Of course, you can’t do that - the things that happen to us change us and we can’t return to the past no matter how much we might want to. The same is true for nations as for people. However, they tried. While they deliberated on what to do, the other delegates to the Congress of Vienna, as it was called, had a grand old time. The waltz was the new dance of the times, and everyone was learning how to waltz. It was a scandalous dance, too! You held the girl to dance. Very naughty. The delegates had such a good time, this congress got the nickname of the "Dancing Congress".
Four men made the major decisions at the Congress of Vienna. These men were Klemens von Metternich, the foreign minister of Austria and the host of the conference, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, Viscount Castlereagh, the British foreign minister, Prince Hardenburg from Prussia, and Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, a sly and devious individual who was the foreign minister of Louis XVIII. These men were most concerned with preventing revolutions, Robespierres and Napoleons.
To punish France, the four men took her land so as to reduce her size to what she was in 1790; they made her pay a vast indemnity; they made her return all the things Napoleon had stolen from other countries, mainly art works, and lastly, France had to finance and permit troops of occupation for five years. The four men agreed to use force if necessary to preserve this agreement. To make this promise official they signed the Quadruple Alliance.
The legacy of the French Revolution
The French Revolution was the momentous event of the nineteenth century. It was what everyone remembered. It had an impact on people. When people said, "the revolution" everyone knew the person was referring to the French Revolution. The only comparison I can really make is what World War II is to my generation and my parents’ generation. To this day, when someone refers to "the war" to me, I think "World War II" because that is the war that had an influence on my generation when we were young and impressionable. World War II affected my family; my father was gone during much of it. Some of my friends lost family members in it. The French Revolution was like that; it impacted people and influenced the way they thought about things. One reason it did this, I’m sure, is the length of time it lasted; if you were born in 1789, by the time it was all over, you were 26!
What did the French Revolution accomplish? Actually, it accomplished more than you might think. One tends to get lost in the violence, but a person has to look beyond that. Certainly, it ended feudalism in France. No one even seriously thought about restoring it once the Revolution was over, either. France in 1815 no longer had privileged castes of people. There was more opportunity for social mobility - that is, for hard work to improve your social position. Equality before the law was an accepted concept. The middle class had won its freedom from feudal restraints on its business, and there was religious toleration for Protestants, Jews and freethinkers. Peasants got the chance to own their own land and to buy more if they could afford it. Everyone had to pay taxes. Maybe the various revolutionaries had not lived up to the ideals stated in the Declaration of the Rights of Man, but they had made a start. Like the United States’ Declaration of Independence gave it goals to work for, the Declaration of the Rights of Man gave Frenchmen goals to work on.
To this day, historians do not completely agree on what happened in the French Revolution or why it happened. Historians do not agree on what kind of revolution it was. They find out more about this fascinating revolution all the time.
Questions
UNIT SEVEN-The Industrial Revolution