GUATEMALA.

Of the seven nations in Central America, Guatemala is by most measures the most important. It contains one third of the region's population and surpasses other Central American countries in commerce and manufacturing. With more than 1 million inhabitants, its capital city also called Guatemala is by far the largest urban center in Central America. That Guatemala was equally distinguished before the arrival of the Spanish is revealed by the widespread distribution of major Mayan archaeological sites.

Bordering on Mexico, Guatemala is the westernmost nation in Central America. To the east lie Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador, and a narrow strip of land faces the Caribbean Sea. Guatemala's southern boundary is marked by the Pacific Ocean. With the greatest distance of 275 miles (443 kilometers) from north to south and 250 miles (402 kilometers) from east to west, this compact nation contains more than 40,000 square miles (100,000 square kilometers).

Land and Climate

The highly varied landscape of Guatemala is oriented from east to west. The southern third is of volcanic origin. An imposing row of active and dormant volcanoes starts at the Mexican border and extends southeastward into El Salvador. The 13,845-foot (4,220-meter) volcano Tajumulco is the highest peak in Central America. Lakes Atitlan and Amatitlan add to the spectacular beauty of this landscape. To the south of the volcanic row is a narrow Pacific coastal plain known for its rich volcanic soils.

An older volcanic plateau lies to the north of the geologically more recent volcanic peaks. It averages about 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) in elevation, though a higher area known as Los Altos occupies the more western part.

Within the volcanic landscapes of southern Guatemala are located seven of the country's eight largest cities. The nation's economic activity is also concentrated there.

Across the central portion of Guatemala, mountain ridges and valleys extend side by side from Mexico eastward into Belize and Honduras. To the west the Cuchumatanes range provides the most extensive area above 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) in Central America. Eastward are the lower ranges of the Chuacus, Chama, and Las Minas.

The central ranges and valleys possess forest and mineral resources, but they remain isolated and sparsely populated. The Motagua River flows through one of the major eastern valleys and provides a convenient passageway from Guatemala City to the port of Puerto Barrios on the Caribbean.

The northern third of Guatemala is known as the Peten. This area is remote and sparsely populated with little access by way of roads. Most of the Peten is covered with thin limestone soils that are poorly suited for agriculture. The area is heavily forested and well known for its magnificent Mayan ruins.

Although the Caribbean shoreline and most of the Peten receive rainfall throughout the year, Guatemala is characterized by a wet and dry climate. Rains occur between May and November. The remainder of the year is dry. Nevertheless, the mountains contribute to wide extremes in rainfall as well as temperatures. Along the southern volcanic slopes facing the Pacific Ocean and the northern flanks of the Cuchumatanes, rainfall may total 150 inches (380 centimeters) annually. Flanked by high mountains, Motagua Valley receives less than 20 inches (50 centimeters).

Low-lying coastal plains are hot. Guatemala City, at 5,000 feet (1,500 meters), has mild temperatures throughout the year and is sometimes called the land of "eternal spring." Above 8,000 feet (2,400 meters) in Los Altos and in the Cuchumatanes, temperatures are cool, averaging 60 F (16 C) throughout the year.

Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tropical storms hurricanes and rainstorms known as temporales have repeatedly dealt deathly blows to the people and economy of Guatemala. In 1902 an earthquake destroyed the city of Quezaltenango, and the eruption of the volcano Santa Maria destroyed coffee farms and killed and left homeless thousands of people. In 1917 Guatemala City was partially destroyed. It was badly damaged by another earthquake that killed 23,000 persons throughout Guatemala in 1976.

Plant and Animal Life

Forests and woodlands cover about a quarter of the country. These are concentrated in the Peten of northern Guatemala and the high ranges of the central region. In southern Guatemala forests tend to be restricted to higher elevations of the volcanic uplands.

Oak and pine forests are found at higher elevations. Tropical rainforests are largely in the lowlands of the north. Except for mangrove swamps along the shoreline, natural vegetation is nearly nonexistent on the Pacific coastal plain. Although there is a program of reforestation, slopes continue to be cleared as migrant farmers search out crop land.

Forests are sources of charcoal, firewood, and lumber. Spanish cedar and mahogany provide fine woods for cabinetmaking. The sacred ceiba, which yields the fiber kapok, is the national tree.

Wildlife habitats are destroyed as forests are cleared. For this reason it is primarily in the northern regions that jaguars, monkeys, parrots, and other wildlife are still found. The brightly feathered quetzal is the national bird of Guatemala.

Although inland waters, lagoons, and the bordering seas contain abundant supplies of marine life, commercial fishing is not well developed. Champerico serves as the main Pacific port for the shrimp fleet.

People and Culture

When the Spanish arrived in Guatemala in 1524, they found a dense population organized into a number of small kingdoms. Within a century after the Spanish conquest, the population declined from about 2 million to 300,000, where it remained until the late 1700s. Thereafter the population grew slowly, finally returning to 2 million during the early 1930s.

Of the 8 million people in Guatemala today, nearly two thirds live in rural areas. With the current high birthrate, there will be 12 million people by the year 2000. Guatemalans are flooding into cities. Nearly 1.5 million dwell in the metropolitan area of the modern and bustling capital, Guatemala City.

Throughout the country there is a strong contrast between old and new. In Guatemala City there are skyscrapers, supermarkets, and streets crowded with cars and buses. In nearby Antigua, a favorite attraction for tourists, its past is reflected in cobblestone streets, colonial churches, and one-story buildings with white walls and red tile roofs. In Los Altos the city of Totonicapan was constructed according to Spanish colonial city plans, but crude whitewashed adobe huts, colorful costumes, and an open-air market where Indians speak in a Mayan dialect are reminders of the contributions of an older Indian culture.

While Indians have a diet mostly of corn and beans, Ladinos (Westernized citizens) are more likely to consume wheat and meat. Although Protestantism is making inroads, Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion. Among Indians ancient non-Christian traditions are incorporated into their Catholic faith. Spanish is the official language of the country, but many Indians speak their native dialects.

Economy

More than half of all workers are employed in farming, but agriculture only contributes 25 percent to the nation's income. This is explained by the fact that many farmers practice subsistence agriculture producing corn and beans for household use.

The creation of coffee and banana plantations between 1860 and 1918 was the first attempt to establish commercial agriculture in Guatemala on a large scale. After World War II commercial farming expanded into the raising of cotton, sugar, and livestock. Except for bananas, which are produced in the lower Motagua Valley near the Caribbean, most major commercial agricultural activities are concentrated along the Pacific coast and the lower, southern volcanic slopes.

Guatemala has a relatively advanced manufacturing sector, one of the most developed in Central America. Industry and manufacturing involve a wide range of activities carried on in both modern and old ways. Sugar may be processed in large factories called centrales or in primitive family mills known as trapiches. Plastic and metal kitchenware is made in factories in Guatemala City, but pots and tableware are also made of clay in Indian villages. Craft activities include making crude wooden furniture, textiles, grinding stones, candles, and other items for wear or household use. Tires, pharmaceutical and petroleum products, beverages, fabrics, clothing, and other consumer goods are produced in modern factories usually in larger centers such as Guatemala City, Quezaltenango, or Escuintla. Manufacturing has grown rapidly since 1960, when the markets of other Central American nations were opened to the exports of Guatemala.

Although minerals are present in the central mountain ranges of Guatemala, the mining of lead, zinc, or silver has never been significant. Antimony, copper, nickel, and tungsten are also mined. Petroleum fields came into production in the Peten in 1978. Output remains small, and petroleum is a major import.

Until 1950 the value of coffee and bananas made up 90 percent of Guatemalan exports. Thereafter rapid increases in the production and export of cotton, sugar, beef, and manufactured products led to a decrease in the reliance on coffee and bananas, whose share has dropped to a third of all exports.

Imports of machinery, transportation equipment, and construction materials come primarily from the United States, other Central American nations, Western Europe, and Japan. Most of the petroleum comes from Venezuela, some by way of refineries in the Netherlands Antilles. During the 1970s Guatemala made significant economic progress. During the 1980s depressed prices for its exports, internal political struggles, and the loss of tourist trade led to increased unemployment, inflation, and a decline in the value of goods and services produced within the country.

Transportation, Communication, and Education

Between 1880 and 1930 railroads were constructed to carry coffee and bananas to seaports for export. Since 1950 the spread of a paved highway network has resulted in a sharp decline in rail freight and passenger traffic. Some rail lines have been abandoned, but Guatemala City is still linked by rail to the ports of San Jose on the Pacific and Puerto Barrios on the Caribbean.

The road network is concentrated in the more heavily populated area of southern Guatemala. The Inter-American Highway, crossing the volcanic plateau, is a major east-west route linking Quezaltenango and Guatemala City. It is paralleled by a Pacific coast highway that runs from Mexico to the El Salvador border. These two highways are linked by numerous roads that wind through the chain of volcanoes. Good roads also lead to ports on the Pacific and the Caribbean. The road to the Peten is not paved and is not always passable. Today there are 486 miles (782 kilometers) of railroad in service and about 11,200 miles (18,000 kilometers) of roads, of which fewer than 3,000 miles (4,800 kilometers) are paved. Most of the people use bus transportation.

Guatemala's two international airports are in Guatemala City and in Santa Elena Peten. With the improvement in highways, commercial air flights within the country have become limited to those between the capital and the Peten. All foreign trade that is carried by sea passes through the ports of Matias de Galvez and Puerto Barrios on the Caribbean and San Jose and Champerico along the Pacific.

Major television stations and newspapers are all concentrated in Guatemala City. Telephone and telegraph service is operated by the government.

About 60 percent of Guatemalans over the age of 15 can read and write. In general, Ladinos living in cities are more literate than rural Indians, and men are more likely to be able to read and write than are women. Schools through at least the third grade are generally available for all children, and primary education is compulsory. Educational supplies are limited, however, and many parents cannot afford them. Attendance is poor among Indian children because they are needed to tend fields or work at home.

Only a third of school-age children attend classes at the secondary level. There are five universities in Guatemala City. The national University of San Carlos has an enrollment of nearly 50,000 students, the largest of any university in Central America.

Government

Guatemala is made up of 22 departments divided into municipios, or townships. The president and vice-president are directly elected for a single five-year term, and the president is responsible for appointing departmental governors. Leaders of military revolts are prohibited from holding office.

A new constitution came into effect in 1986 that divides the government into legislative, judicial, and executive branches. The single legislative house, the National Congress, is made up of 116 members. The ultimate judicial authority is the Supreme Court.

History

When the Spanish forces under Pedro de Alvarado invaded Guatemala in 1524, they defeated the armies of three major kingdoms: the Quiche, the Cakchiquel, and the Mam. A capital city, today known as Ciudad Vieja, was founded in a basin between the volcanoes of Agua and Fuego. It was destroyed in 1551 by a mudslide down the slopes of Agua.

Transferred to a nearby valley, a new city now known as Antigua was established. It became the capital of the Audiencia, or Kingdom, of Guatemala, which included the neighboring Mexican province of Chiapas and all of Central America except Panama.

The city of Antigua was repeatedly damaged by earthquakes during the colonial period. In 1773 a severe earthquake left many of the churches and other buildings in ruins. It was determined that the capital should be moved to the safer location of present-day Guatemala City.

The Kingdom of Guatemala joined Mexico in declaring its independence from Spain in 1821. In 1824 Guatemala was governed as a member of the United Provinces of Central America. In 1839 Guatemala declared its independence from the Central American federal union.

Between 1839 and 1944 the control of government in Guatemala shifted back and forth between conservative and liberal forces. Four long-term dictatorships ruled for a total of 73 years during this period. Under Rafael Carrera between 1839 and 1865, the power of landowners and the church was confirmed, but Indians were generally permitted to rule their own lives. Under Justo Rufino Barrios from 1873 to 1885, the power of the church was greatly curtailed.

Manuel Estrada Cabrera's rule from 1898 to 1920 proved to be very harsh for Indians. Foreign investment led to the expansion of railroads and the establishment of banana plantations by the United Fruit Company. Jorge Ubico, who governed between 1931 and 1944, continued the tradition of tight and sometimes harsh political control; but he attempted to lessen the burdens previously imposed upon the Indians.

From the mid-1940s to the early 1990s there was a succession of governments. Following the election of liberals Juan Jose Arevalo in 1945 and Jacobo Arbenz Guzman in 1950, there occurred an uprising in 1954 against a government that was accused of being infiltrated by Communists. Carlos Castillo Armas, who led the uprising, became president and was followed in office by a succession of military leaders or civilians under their control. Since 1954 Guatemala has been caught up in a civil war between conservative and liberal forces. Many thousands of civilians have been killed, and tens of thousands have fled to Mexico and elsewhere. Jorge Serrano Elias was elected president in a 1991 runoff. It was the first time in Guatemalan history that a civilian succeeded a civilian.

This article was contributed by Oscar H. Horst, Professor Emeritus of Geography, Western Michigan University.

© 1996 jpmt@uvg.edu.gt

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