THE HISTORY OF INDIA!

THE HARAPPA CIVILASATION

In 1921 A.D. the remains of an ancient urban civilisation were found in an excavation in the Punjab at Harappa, on the banks of the river Ravi. This civilisation dates back to about 5000 years ago. The people of this civilisation knew the use of metals. They were well advanced in many fields such as town-planning, building -houses of baked bricks as also in commerce.

Baked-brick constructions and other remains have been found also at Mohen-jo-daro, a place about 650 kms away from Harappa in the Indus valley. Similar remains have also been found at Kalibangan, Lothal, Surkotada, Dholawira, Rangpur, Daimabad, etc. These places were situated in river basins or river valleys.

On the basis of the remains found at these places, historians have come to the conclusion that the lifestyle or the culture of the people in there different places was much the same. It is known as the Harappa Civilization. Generally, the same characteristics are seen in all these places of Harappa civilization. Town-planning roads, construction of houses, drainage system, seals, pots and utensils, and the burial customs are some of the major characteristics observed.

Town-planning: In some of the excavations, the remains of entire cities have been unearthed. From these it is observed that a Harappan city was protected by huge walls built on all sides. The walls had watch-towers at regular distances.

Seals: Square seals or coins have been found in the excavations at various places. They were made of the powder of a particular white stone. Besides, seals of ivory, clay and metals, too , have been found. These seals bear the pictures of animals and manlike figures. At the top, letters are engraved in a script which has not yet been deciphered. Historians believe that such seals were used in rituals or for trade.

Earthenware: Shapely earthen pots is one of the characteristics of the Harappa civilisation. Several specimens of such earthen pots have been found in excavations.

One city on another: At Mohen-Jo-Daro, the remains of cities built one above the other have been found. From those remains it appears that the original city at the site perhaps got buried due to some reason. After a period of time, another city was built on the same site. Seven such layers of construction have been found at Mohen-jo-daro.

The Great Bath: A huge square bath of 56 meters x 56 meters has been found at Mohen-jo-daro. At its centre there is a tank measuring 12 meters X 7 meters and 2.5 meters in deep. There are steps leading down to the tank. The tank has been built in baked bricks in such a way as would prevent seepage of water. There is also a provision for draining and re-filling the tank from time to time. The Harappan people seem to have given special attention to facilities for cleanliness and hygiene. Their town-planning was systematic.

The facilities provided in the Harappan cities clearly indicate that these cities must have had an administrative system which laid down rules of town management and implemented them strictly.

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The people speaking aryan langauages settled in North-West India around 1500 B.C. that is after the periods of Harappan civilations as we know that Harappan times language is not yet been deciphered to us.

The Aryans flourised in the fertile province of today's Punjab, which they called the Region of Seven Rivers or "Sapta-Sindhu". Then in some course of time Aryans have moved from Saptasindhu Region to the river valleys of river Ganga and Yamuna, where several tiny kingdoms were etablished.

CHATURVEDAS (Four Basic Compostions) : A remarkable feature of the Aryans civilazation is there literature at that times. They had composed beautiful poems since the earliest times. Through their literature we get the knowledge of their social life and philosophy. The "Rigveda" is the first composition of the Aryans. The "Rigveda" consists of verses composed in praise of the different forces in Mother Nature looked upon as deities. The other three vedas of Aryan Times are "Yajurveda", "Samaveda" and "Atharvaveda". The " Yajurveda" provides information about sacrifices in prose. The "Samaveda" provides guidance on the singing of Rigvedic verses with the set rhythms and tunes. The Samaveda is believed to be the foundation of Indian Cultural Songs and Music. The "Atharvaveda" consists of philosophy and lists solution to day-to-day problems, anxieties and difficulties. It also includes information on Medicines and Herbs.

BRAHMANAS: After the Vedas, the second-most important literature of Aryans is the Brahmanas. They were composed to illustrate the use of Vedas in sacrificial rituals. Each Veda has independent Brahmanas.

UPANISHADS: The term "Upanishad" indicates knowledge acquired by sitting close to the teacher. This consists of discussions on several problems such as creation of the universe, the nature of God, the origin of mankind, etc.

The period of the composition of "Rigveda" and the subsequent literature upto the "Upanishads" is approximately 1000 years. This period is divided into two parts - The Vedic (from 1500 BC to 1000 BC) and the Later Vedic (from 1000 BC to 600 BC). The social life of the Aryans underwent profound changes. These changes are reflected in the literature of that period. This whole literature is therefore an important source to the history of the Aryans.

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Initially, the Aryans lived in groups in the Region of the Seven Rivers. Later on they moved towards the basin of the rivers Ganga and Yamuna. Each Group of the Aryans was known as the 'kula' and each 'kula' was named after an illustrious ancestor. These clans formed the early village-settlements. In the course of time, each kula expanded into a small state. It was from these states that mighty powers like the Kurus, the Panchals, the Kosals, Kashi and Videha emerged.

The Varna System The Aryan society was divided into three sections the brahmins, kshatriyas and vaishyas. Each of these three divisions was called a 'varna'. The varnas were based on occupations. Those who studied the Vedas and instructed others in them were the brahmins; those who looked after the administration of the state and fought for its defence were the kshatriyas and those who were engaged in agriculture, trade and other occupations, were the vaishyas. This was only a broad division. Initially, the Varna system was flexible. Though it was based on occupations, every person in the society was free to choose his occupation.

The Aryans called the non-Aryans they had conquered 'das' or 'dasyus'. These dasyus were at the lowest rung in the Aryan society. All the hard manual labour was gradually passed over to the dasyus. Labour lost the dignity it enjoyed and discriminations based on the type of work became prevalent. Manual labour was now looked down upon. Those who were engaged in manual labour were called 'shudras'. Thus four varnas came into existence - the brahmins, kshatriyas, vaishyas and the shudras. The shudras had no right to study the Vedas.

As time passed, Varnas came to be decided on the basis of birth. That every one must carry on his father's occupation became the law. Marriages, too, were permitted only within people of the same occupation. Thus, each occupation turned into a caste. In the course of time, these castes were further divided into sub-castes due to many reasons. Several new castes emerged. Marriages outside the caste were forbidden. Thus the caste system took a firm root in society and so did social inequality.

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Towards the end of the later Vedic period, people's ideas of religion had become very complicated. Sacrifices and rituals became predominant. Superstition was rife. Animals were sacrificed on a large scale. Women and shudras were denied education and the rights enjoyed by the other people in society. The thinkers of those times reflected on these social conditions. Different ways of reforming the society were then put forward. Of these, the ways suggested by Vardhaman Mahavir and Gautama Buddha were such as could be followed by everyone. Their teachings had a deep impact on the society.

Vardhaman Mahavir (599 B.C. to 527 B.C.): Vardhaman Mahavir was the twenty-fourth Tirthankar of the Jains. According to the Jain tradition, the one who reveals religion is known as the 'Tirthankar'.

Vardhaman Mahavir was born at Kundagram in Bihar.' He was the son of Siddharth and Trishala. Although he had all the pleasures of life, he was not happy. He, therefore, left his home and went away to practise penance. After twelve years of rigorous penance, he attained enlightenment. He then became known as the 'Jin' or the 'One who had conquered', because he had conquered all bodily desires. In order that the common man may easily understand his teachings, he preached in Ardha-magadhi, the language of the people. For Mahavir, non-violence was the greatest principle. He strongly opposed the killings in sacrifices.

Gautama Buddha (563 B.C. to 483 B. C.): Gautama Buddha's name was Siddharth. He was the son of Stiuddhodan and Mayadevi. His wife was Yashodhara and Rahul, their son. Seeing the sorrow in human life, Siddharth was disturbed. He developed an intense urge to find a way to free mankind from sorrow. He left his home for this purpose. He attained enlightenment while he was seated under a peepul tree at Gaya in Bihar. He found the way of freeing human life from sorrow. People started calling him the Buddha, that is, the 'Enlightened One'. The tree under which he attained Enlightenment came to be known as the Bodhi-Vriksha, the 'Tree of Enlightenment'.

Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon after enlightenment at Sarnath, near Varanasi. It is called 'dharmachakra pravartana'. It contained the fundamental principles of Buddhism - the religion he preached.

Ashtanga Marga (The Eight-fold Path): Everyone in this world has to face sorrow. Man craves for many things. He becomes unhappy if he does not get the things he desires. This craving is 'trishna' or thirst. Conquering trishna is conquering grief or sorrow. Purity of behaviour is the way to freedom from sorrow. Proper attitude, balanced thinking, balanced speech, proper action, earning livelihood by proper means, proper exercise, proper memory and proper samadhi are the eight principles. If one leads life in accordance with these, one can conquer sorrow. This is the 'eight-fold path' (Ashtanga Marga) that Lord Buddha preached.

Gautama Buddha laid emphasis on non-violence and compassion in his teachings. The realisation that life is full of sorrow leads to a boundless love for living things. This love is compassion or Karuna.

Panchasheel: The rules of conduct that are in keeping with the eight-fold path are known as the Panchasheel. Ahimsa, asteya, control over the bodily desires, truthfulness and not taking.. intoxicants are the five rules or the Panchsheel.

Gautama Buddha used Pali, the language of the people, to preach.

Bauddha Sangha: Gautama Buddha wanted his doctrine to reach the masses. He, therefore, organised his followers into Bauddha Sanghas. Those followers who left their homes and entered the Bauddha Sangha were called Bhikkus (monks). Strict rules of conduct were prescribed for the Bhikkus. People of all castes were allowed into the Sangha. People from all castes of society entered the Sangha in large numbers, as caste was no barrier. Buddha established women's sanghas,too.

Vardhaman Mahavir and Gautama Buddha went from village to village themselves to convey their teachings to people. They preached that the principle of humanism is supreme and all human beings are equal. They took this message to the commonest of the common. They showed the path of freeing oneself from the yoke of rituals. People saw the path of living human life with dignity in the teachings of these two Great Souls. Their teachings have made a deep impact on the Indian culture.

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Political condition in the 6th century B.C.: There were many states of the Aryans in North India, around the 6th century B. C. These states were called the 'Mahajanapadas'. The Mahajanapadas of Anga, Kashi, Kosala, Chedi, Vatsa, Matsya, Shursen, Ashmak, Avanti, Gandhar and Magadha were ruled by kings or monarchs. The kings in these states had the supreme authority. The Mahajanapadas of Vrijji, Malla, Kuru, Panchal and Kamboj were republican states and so were other smaller states like Lichhavi, Shakya, Koliya, Bhagga, Moriya. These republican states had a 'Gana-parishad' or an Assembly of senior and responsible citizens. This, Gana-parishad had the supreme authority in the state. All the administrative decisions were taken by this Parishad.

Of all these states, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti and Magadha were the most important ones.

Kosala: Shravasti Kushavati, Saket, and Ayodhya were the famous ci@ies of Kosala. Ayodhya was the State capital. The Kosala king Prasenajit was - a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. Kosala and Magadha went to war during his reign. The independent state of Kosala did not last -long after Prasenajit.

Vatsa: Kaushambi of the present day Bihar, was the capital of Vatsa. Vatsa was famous for its fine cotton cloth. The Vatsa king Udayana was very brave. He was the follower of Gautama Buddha. The independent status of- Vatsa was soon lost after king Udayana.

Avanti: The kingdom of Avanti comprised the area around the present day Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh. Pradyota, the king of Avanti, was a very ambitloys ruler. He was constantly engaged in conflicts with Kosala, Vatsa and Magadha. In this constant warfare, the Magadha state ultimately proved superior.

Magadha: Expansion of the Magadha kingdom started during the reign of King Bimbisara. He annexed the kingdoms of Kashi, Madra and Anga to Magadha. There is a reference in the Buddhist works to 80,000 village in Bimbisara's kingdom. The capital of his kingdom was Rajagriha, the present day Rajgir in Bihar. The city of Rajagriha and King Bimbisara's palace were built by an architect named Mahagovinda.

The Nanda Kings of Magadha: The Nandas ruled Magadha between 364 B.C. and 324 B.C. Dhanananda was the last of the Nanda Kings. Magadha had become a very powerful kingdom by that time. It had expanded upto the Punjab in the West. Chandragupta Maurya, an ambitious young man, attacked and conquered Magadha. That was the end of the Nanda rule.

In the history of India, the Nanda period is considered to be important from many points of view. The Nanda kings had set up a good administrative system necessary to run the huge empire. This system continued even during the Maurya period. The Nanda Kings had a huge four-fold army of two lakh infantry, twenty thousand cavalry, two thousand chariots and three thousand elephants. The Nandas introduced the stem of standard weights and measures. The Nanda Kings were lovers of art and literature. They provided patronage to many scholars. The 'well-known grammarian Panini belongs to this period.

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The political ties between India and Iran strengthened during the Bimbisara to Chandragupta period. The Iranian emperor Darius had conquered a part of the Punjab around 518 B.C. This led to the establishment of direct diplomatic ties between India and Iran. Trade and also the exchange of ideas increased through these relations. In the field of Art, too, there was an exchange of ideas and styles.

The invasion of Alexander: Alexander, the king of Greece invaded India in 326 B.C. On way to Takshshila, Alexander met with fierce opposition from the Ashwakas. However, he defeated them and reached Takshashila, crossing the river Sindhu (Indus). Ambhi, the king of Takshshila made an alliance with Alexander. The neighbouring King Puru was Ambhi's enemy. Ambhi had planned to destroy Puru using Alexander. Like Ambhi, King Shashigupta also joined hands with Alexander. King Puru, however, fought with Alexander. He was defeated in the battle. Alexander conquered the states of Kekaya, Gandhara and subsequently the Punjab, too.

Alexander's army had to suffer severe hardships during this campaign. The soldiers were far away from homeland and were eager to go back. Therefore, they rose in rebellion. Alexander also got news of rebellion from the different territories he had conquered. Therefore, he handed over the administration of the conquered territories to his officers and started on the return journey. He died on the way back in 323 B. C. at Babylon.

After the death of Alexander, the Greek Officers declared their respective territories as independent states.

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Communication between India and Greece increased after Alexander's campaign. Trade received an impetus. Indian philosophy, religion and art influenced the Greeks. On the other hand, there was Greek influence on Indian astrology and the method of preparing horoscopes. Indians borrowed the concept of the twelve signs of the Zodiac from the Greeks. Greek sculpture influenced Indian sculpture, giving rise to the Gandhara school of art. The Indians adopted the Greek idea of minting well-formed coins of particular shapes. Trade between India and the western countries was boosted.

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Founding of the Maurya empire : People were tired of the tyrannical rule of the Magadha King Dhanananda. Chandragupta Maurya deposed Dhanananda with the help of a learned person called Vishnugupta, or Chanakya, and established his own rule in Magadha.

Chandragupta extended his rule upto Avanti in Madhya Pradesh and Saurashtra in the west and founded the Maurya empire. His capital was Pataliputra. Selucus Niketer, the Greek king of Babylon invaded India. Chandragupta Maurya defeated him. This victory led to the inclusion of the north-western regions of Kabul, Herat and Kandahar in the Maurya empire. Selucus gave his daughter to Chandragupta in marriage. He also deputed his ambassador Megasthenes to Chandragupta's court. Megasthenes has written about contemporary -India and his experiences at Chandragupta's court. Chanakya was Chandragupta's minister. The 'Arthashastra' written by Chanakya is a well-known treatise. It describes the statecraft and administration of those days.

Emperor Ashoka: Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara. Bindusara, too, was very brave. He was known as the'slayer of enemies'. After Bindusara's -- death, his son Ashoka succeeded the throne. Ashoka was the Governor of Takshshila and Ujjain before he ascended the throne. He had crushed the revolt at Takshshila, Ashoka had ambitions of expanding his empire and so he launched a campaign against the state of Kalinga. He defeated them completely. The Maurya empire was now so vast that it extended upto the Bay of Bengal in the east, Nellore in the south, the river Kabul in the west and upto Tibet in the north. Ashoka was deeply moved to see the bloodshed in the Kalinga war. He devoted the rest of his life to the principle of winning the world with love. Ashoka insisted that truth, non-violence, mercy and compassion should be put into practice in the course of routine life.

He also stressed the need to respect all elders and scholars and to maintain purity in one's conduct. He believed that love is superior to war. Ashoka wanted to spread these teachings among the common people. For this purpose, he erected pillars and had inscriptions engraved at several places in his kingdom. The 'dharma-chakra' or the wheel on the pillar he erected at Sarnath has a place of honour today on the Indian National Flag.

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The successors of Ashoka were not able rulers. Consequently, the Maurya empire disintegrated. The Shungas ruled Magadha after the Mauryas. Pushyamitra was the first Shunga King. By the time Pushyamitra became king, the Greeks had already established their independent states in North-west India. They started invading the Magadha territory. Pushyamitra Shunga, however, successfully forced them to retreat.

The Greek kings ruling the North-west India are known as 'Indo-Greek' kings. Menander, one of those kings, had embraced Buddhism. Menander is also known as Milinda. The questions that he asked Bhikku Nagasena reveal the depth of his curiosity about the religion. Their dialogue in the form of questions and answers is compiled together in a book called 'Milinda Panha' or the 'Questions of Milinda'. Indo-Greek kings like Menander completely mingled with the Indian culture. After the Indo-Greeks, Northwest India was invaded by Central Asian Tribes like the Shakas and the Pahalavas in the third century B. C. They established small kingdoms in the northwest and western India' In the course of time, the Shakas and Pahalavas became one with the Indian culture.

Kushanas: The Kushanas came to India after the Shakas and Pahalavas. The Kushanas, too, came from Central Asia. They established their power in North-west India under the leadership of Kujul Kadphises. The Kushana king Kanishka expanded the kingdom.

Kanishka: The best known of Kushana Kings is Kanishka. His empire extended from Kabul in the west to Benaras in the east. It is believed that the Shaka Era of the Indian calendar was started by Kanishka. It begins in the year 78 A. D. This calendar is called the Shaka Calendar probably because it was used by the Shaka , Kings for a long time.

King Kanishka was a follower of Buddhism. The fourth Buddhist conference was held in Kashmir during his reign. After Gautama Buddha's mahanirvana, differences of opinion developed among his followers. During Kanishka's time, these differences resulted into the emergence of two sects called the Hinayana and the Mahayana. The Mahayana sect spread during Kanishka's regime. Kanishka ruled for twenty-three years. He died in 101 A. D.

The Satavahanas: The Satavahanas rose to power in Maharashtra around 200 B.C. They remained in power, for about 400 years. Almost the whole of present day Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and South India were under Satavahana rule. Paithan in Maharashtra, formerly called Pratishthan, was the capital of the Satavahanas. Of the Satavahana kings, Gautamiputra Satakarni was very famous. He defeated the Shaka King Nahapan of Kathewad. He conquered several other territories, too.

His kingdom stretched from Kathewad, Malwa and Rajasthan in the north to the river Krishna in the south and from the Arabian Sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal in the east. A stone inscription in a cave at Nashik bears a description of Saitakarni as just, popular and of impressive personage. The inscription adds that Satakarni was 'tri-samudratoya-pita-vahan', that is, one whose horses have drunk the water of three seas.' It is an indication of his valour.

Vasishthiputra Pulumavi, Vasishthiputra Satakarni, Yadnyashri Satakarni are some other Satavahana rulers who succeeded Gautamiputra Satakarni. However, the glory of the Satavahana power began to recede after Yadnyashri -Satakarni.

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An important power in North India after the Kushanas was that of the Guptas. Between 320 A.D. and 600 A.D. the mighty power of the Guptas flourished in the North while the Vakatakas, Chalukyas, Pallavas and Rashtrakutas were the eminent powers in the South.

Samudragupta (330 A.D. to 380 A.D.): The Gupta power was first established in Magadha. It got a strong foothold during the reign of Chandragupta I. e was succeeded by Samudragupta and Chandragupta II, both of whom were powerful kings. Samudragupta expanded his kingdom into an empire. He conquered the smaller neighbouring kingdoms, and extended his empire from the Bay of Bengal upto Delhi in the north-west. Some of the rulers in the territory around the Vindhyas accepted his suzerainty or overlordship. After that, Samudragupta launched a campaign of the south. He conquered kingdoms upto Kancheepuram on tne eastern coast and brought them under his rule. The kings of the north-west frontier of India as well as Sri Lanka made treaties of friendship with Samudragupta.

A stone inscription on a pillar at Allahabad describes his conquests. This inscription sheds light on Samudragupta's abilities as a general and as an administrator. As a mark of supremacy he performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice. Samudragupta was a great patron of arts and learning. He himself was a poet and a great lover of music. One of the coins he minted shows him playing a lute.

Chandragupta II (380 A.D. - 414 A.D.): Samudragupta's son Chandragupta-II succeeded him. He conquered many republics in North-west India. He defeated the Shakas, and earned the title 'Shakar!' - the Foe of the Shakas. He extended the Gupta empire to the north-west. He annexed the western provinces of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra to his empire. He established friendly relations with the powerful Vakataka rulers in the south.

During the Gupta period, commercial ports such as Veraval, Bharuch and others prospered greatly. Trade with eastern countries expanded through Tamralipti; a port in the Bay of Bengal. The city of Ujjain became an important trade-centre.

The Chinese traveller Fa Hien visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II. He has written about the life in the Gupta era in his travelogue. He describes: 'Indian cities are prosperous and stretch far and wide. There are many guest houses for travellers. There are charitable institutions, too. There are hospitals providing free medical service for the poor. The viharas and temples are majestic. People are free to choose their occupations. There are no restrictions on the movement of the people. Government officials and soldiers are paid their salaries regularly. People are not addicted to drinks. They shun violence. The administration provided by the Gupta rulers is fair and just'.

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The Vardhanas came in to power in North-Western India in the wake of the declining Gupta Power. Of the Vardhan kings, Harshavardhana (606 A.D. to 647 A.D.) is the best known as he expanded upto Nepal in North and upto the river Narmada in South, upto Assam in the East and Malwa in the West. Harshavardhan embraced Buddhism and constructed a number of Viharas, Stupas and Chityas. He was poet an playwright too. He built many public dispensaries, inns and made provisions for drinking water. A large portion of his treasure was spent on works of public welfare. Every five years King Harsha used to distribute all his wealth amongst the people. King Harshavardhana was known in history as a benevolent monarch.

Ywan Chwang: The Chinese Buddhist scholar Ywan Chwang visited India during King Harsha's reign. Buddhism had spread in china at this time. Ywan Chwang visited India as it was birthplace of Buddhism. He stayed in India for long time. During his stay in India he travelled in the regions of Kashmir, the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. His travelogue contains a lot of information about Contemparary India.

South Indian powers: The Vakatakas, Chalukyas, Pallavas and Rashtrakutas were the important powers in South India during this period.

The Vakatakas (250 A.D. - 500 A.D.): The Vakataka power which emerged in the Vidharbha region was founded by Vindhyashakti. Pravarsen I (270 A.D. - 330 A.D.) was the most famous Vakataka ruler. He expanded his kingdom upto the Narmada river in the north and Kolhapur in south. He was an advocate of the Vedic religion. Rudrasena, Prithvisena and Rudrasena 11 were the kings who succeeded Pravarsena. The Vakatakas were so powerful that even the powerful Gupta emperors had to make compromises with them.

King Harishena was the last noteworthy Vakataka king. Varahadeva, Harishena's minister, was a follower of Buddhism. Some of the Ajanta caves were carved in Harishena's time.

The Vakataka kingdom extended from Madhya Pradesh right upto the river Tungabhadra in the south. The Vakataka administration was well organised and efficient. The satisfactory law and order situation in the Vakataka empire was beneficial for promotion of trade. The Vakatakas encouraged arts and learning.

Several new works in 'Maharashtri', one of the Prakrit languages, were composed during the Vakataka period. One such poetic composition 'Harivijaya' is well-known. Sanskrit too, flourished in this period. Historians believe that the famous Sanskrit poet Kalidasa stayed for some time at the Vakataka court and composed his famous 'Meghadoota' during this period. Many of the paintings in the Ajanta caves were done under the Vakataka patronage.

The Chalukyas (535 A.D. - 757 A.D.): The city of Badami in Karnataka was the capital of the Chalukyas, who are, therefore, called the 'Chalukyas of Badami'. Jayasimha founded the Chalukya kingdom and Pulakeshi I expanded it. King Pulakeshi II came to power in 611 A.D. He brought both Maharashtra and Karnataka under his control. He defeated Emperor Harshavardhan on the banks of the river Narmada and thus successfully repulsed his invasion. The Chalukyas also went to war with the neighbouring Pallava kingdom and conquered a part of their territory. The Arabs of the Sindh region invaded the south via Gujarat, but the Chalukyas . checked this invasion successfully. However, in about 757 A.D. the 'Rashtrakuta King Krishna inflicted defeat on the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas emerged as a mighty power. The.Chalukya Kings gave patronage to Jainism and Buddhism. A number of temples, lakes and tanks were built during their regime.

The temples at Pattadkal, Badami and Aihole built during this period are famous for their fine sculpture. Abundant literature, both in Sanskrit and Kannada, was produced in the Chalukya period. Pujyapada, Samantbhadra are among the great creative Kannada,, poets of that period. During the Chalukya period, trade to distant lands was carried on both by sea and land routes. Industries and trade were controlled by the guilds or shrenis.

The Pallavas (550 A.D. - 750 A.D.): The Pallava kingdom stretched upto the River Narmada in the north. Their capital was Kancheepuram. Mahendravarma was a powerful Pallava king. The Pallava kingdom expanded further during his reign (600 A.D. - 630 A.D.). Mahendravarma was a playwright himself. The brave king Narasimhavarma I was Mahendravarma's son. Narasimhavarma not only repulsed the invasion of the Chalukya king Pulakeshi II, but he also attacked the Chalukyas and conquered their capital, Badami. He sent his navy to assist the prince of Sri Lanka. The construction of the famous 'ratha' temples at Mahabalipuram was started in his period. The Pallava kings were great lovers of art and learning. The well-known Sanskrit poet Bharavi was at the court of the Pallavas. The Pallavas provided aid to the university at Kanchi which was a renowned seat of learning. The Pallavas had a powerful and well-equipped navy.