History Study Guide

Da Chanman's Honors World History Spring 2001 Review
If you find this study guide useful, I would appreciate any donations as this took me the whole weekend to make.

Study Guide Status:
People, works, and ideas - Complete except for 4 entries.
Key terms and Relationships - Unfinished.

1. Alexander I of Russia pp. 690, 700, & 742
- Fought against Napoleon and lost. Signed Treaty of Tilsit. Saved Prussian state from extinction. (690)
- Proposed Holy Alliance. (700)
- Mild reformer that became reactionary. (734)
- Came to power through a palace coup.
- Suppressed liberalism and caused secret socities to form in Russia. (742)

2. Alexander II of Russia pp. 823-825
- Nicholas I's son.
- Restructured society by ending serfdom (failed though because serfs still had no land and fell into debt). (823)
- 1864 changed judiciary system. More equality, impartial hearings, uniform procedures, judicial independence, and trial by jury.
- "Russified" Poland (825)
- Known as "Czar Liberator" but was not popular.
- Assination attempt on his life made Russia a police state.

3. Asquith, Henry p. 855
- British leader who imprisoned women demonstrators and force-fed women on hunger strikes in jail for trying to get the right to vote.

4. Becccaria, Cesare p. 618
- Italian philosophe who wrote On Crimes and Punishments.
- He was against torture and capital punishment.
- Believed that the law was for the common good.

5. Bentham, Jeremy p. 776
- Ulitarian that wrote Fragment on Government and The Principles of Morals and Legislation. These books explained the interests of priviledged groups preventing rational government. Led way to 1834 Poor Law.

6. Bismarck, Otto Van pp. 809-812, 863, 886-887, 915, 919, 921-925, 927, & 1129
- Hired by Willaim I (809)
- 1851 he served as Prussian minister to the Frankfurt Diet of the German Confederation.
- 1862 became prime minister. Moved immediately against liberal Parliament. (810)
- Unified Germany through weaving of diplomatic "traps" and setting them off with war. (812)
- Purued an imperial policy with colonies in Africa just to bolster diplomatic relations. It could divert French hostility against Germany and persaude the British to be reasonable. (915 & 919)
- After 1871 Germany was a satisfied power. This was done to avoid new wars.
- Created Three Emperor's League which was Germany, Austria, and Russia. (922)
- The Three Emperor's League was renowed regularly. Bismarck used secret alliances to his advantage.
- Wanted to avoid a war between Russia and Austria which would get Germany nothing. (923)
- Never allowed Germany to get caught between Austria's Balkan quarrels.
- Tried to keep the majority of powers to keep Germany in a good position in Europe through system of alliances..
- Forced to resign by William II (863)

7. Blanc, Louis pp. 778, 780, & 782
- Wrote Organization of Labor (778)
- Demanded end to competition.
- Louis Blanc led various working-class group in Paris to social and political revolution. (782)
- Blanc was made a minister.
- Got the provisional government to organize national workshops to provide work and relief for the unemployed.

8. Bonaparte, Napoleon pp. 475, 604, 607, 678, & 683-693
- Born in 1769 in Corsica. (684)
- Was a French artillery officer who favored the revolution and was a fiery Jacobin.
- General in charge of Italian Campaign, saved the Directory.
- In October 1797 he captured all of Italy and Switzerland and returned in November to Franch as a hero.
- He decided to take out France's last enemy, Britian.
- Admiral Horatio Nelson destroyed the French fleet at Abukir when Napoleon was invading Egypt.
- This invasion by Napoleon caused Russia, Austria, Turkey, and Britian to form the Second Coalition.
- With the Constitution of the Year VIII, Bonaparte ruled. (685)
- Napoleon formed a concordat with the Church that declared, "Catholiscism is the religion fo the great majority of French citizens and the clergy had to swear an oath of loyalty to the state. (688)
- Civil Code of 1804, also know as Napoleonic Code formed.
- Crowned himself emperor.(689)
- Conquered most of Europe.
- Everywher Napoleon's advance unleashed force of nationalism.
- His weapon was the militarily mobilized French nation, one of the achievements of the revolution.
- Peace of Amiens in 1802 was only a truce between Britian and France.
- British held naval supremecy by destroying the combined French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar.
- December 2, 1805 was Napoleon's greatest victory by defeating Austrian and Russion forces at Austerlitz.
- Also defeated Alexander I.
- Napoleon planned to take down the British by cutting off European trade with Britain through the Continental System. (691)
- Napoleon's conquest stimulated liberalism and nationalism. New freedoms came to serfs, artisans, and workers.
- Napoleon divorced his first wife Josephine when she failed to produce a mail heir and married Marie Louise an Austrian Princess.
- Bonaparte won but it was considered a defeat in Russia due to "scorched earth" policy and being caught in a Russian winter. (697)
- Defeated at Leipzig at the Battle of the Nations in 1813. (699)
- Napoleon lost control of France with the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy. However he returned with The Hundred Days. (700)
- He was finally defeated at Waterloo, abdicated his throne, and exiled himslef in Africa.

9. Canning, George pp. 735 & 736
- Foreign minister of the final postwar congress of the Spanish Revolution of 1820 after Castlereagh. (735)
- Interested in the fate of British commerce and trade at the Congress of Verona.
- He tried to prevent the politics of European reaction from being extended to Spain's colonies and exploit South American revolutions to break Spanish trading monopolies. (736)
- Canning brought to a successful conclusion the War of Jenkins's Ear.

10. Catherine the Great pp. 548, 551, 575, 606, 627, 628, 632-635, 637, & 667
- Born a German princess (633)
- Also known as Catherine II of Russia.
- Deposed of Peter III and was proclaimed empress. (633)
- In 1785, in the Charter of the Nobility, Catherine the Great legally defined noble rights and privileges in exchange for the assurance that the nobility would serve the state voluntarily. Favored nobles. (548 & 634)
- Against Jews (575)
- Used enlightened absolutism. (627)
- Adopted public relations (628)
- Read works of philosophes and became friends with Volatair and Diderot.
- Had a war with the Ottoman Empire and gained a direct outlet on the Black Sea.

11. Chamberlin, Nevile pp. 1039, 1040, 1042, & 1045
- British Prime Minister during time of Hitler's "appeasement period".
- Attempted to appease Hitler at Czech expense. (1039)
- Believed that Hitler was appesed through the Munich agreement.
- Replaced by Winston Churchill. (1045)

12. Churchill, Winston pp. 937, 1041, 1045, 1065, & 1073-1074
- In 1915 Attacked the Dardanells in a failed attempt to capture Constantinople. (937)
- Became prime minister of Britain after Chamberlin.
- Developed a close relationship with President Franklin D. Roosevelt which created the lend and lease policy. (1045)
- Agreed to share power in the Balkans on the basis of Soviet predominance in Romania and Bulgaria during WWII. (1065)
- Against Soviet Iron Curtain that divided a free and democratic West from a totalitarian East. (1074)

13. Darwin, Charles pp. 880-882 & 903
- In 1859 published The Origin of Species. (880)
- Newton of biology.
- Did not originate the concept of evolution, but formulated the principle of natural selection.
- Came up with the idea of "Survival of the Fittest".
- Contradicted biblical narrative of Creation and undermined the deistic argument for the existence of God from the design of the universe (881)
- Wrote The Descent of Man in 1871
- Acceptance of natural selection with the scientific community dates from 1920s and 1930s when Darwin's theory was combined with the insights of modern genetics. (882)

14. Diderot, Denis pp. 307, 614, & 627
- 1751 in cooperation with Jean le Rond d'Alembert created the first Encyclopedia. (614)
- Occasionally visited Catherine the Great. (627)

15. Disraeli, Benjamin pp. 828, 829-830, 915, & 922
- Part of the conservative ministry that introduced its own reform bill in 1867 that increased the number of voters from 1,430,000 to 2, 470,000. (828)
- Tried to get working class to support Conservative candidtates.
- Succeeded Gladstone as prime minister of Britain in 1874. (829)
- Gave new protection to British trade unions, passed the Public Health Act, and helped working people through the Artisans Dwelling Act of 1875. (829-830)
- Purchased a major interest in the Suez Canal in 1875 which they gained control of when Egypt's stability was threatened. (915)

16. Dreyfus, Alfred pp. 816 & 817
- Main person in the "Dreyfus affiar". He was a French captain that was found guilty of treason for passing information to the German army. (816)
- Evidence was flimsy and was later found to be forged.
- Was ccused because he was Jewish.
- Later was helped by politicians because it would help their own public image. (817)
- His case divided France as no issue had done since the Paris Commune.
- Showed that the government was willing to deny rights and persecute an innocent person by manufacturing false evidence.
- Divided the Thrid Republic until Germany defeated France in 1940

17. Franco, Francisco pp. 1036-1038 & 1118
- General that led an army from Spanish Morocco against the republic in the Spanish Civil War.
- Took Barcelona in 1939 to have won effective control over Spain.

18. Goering, Hermann pp. ???

19. Goethe, George Wilhelm Friedrich pp. ???

20. Herder, Johann Gottfried pp. 708, 714, & 716
- Used terms "romantic" and "Gothic" interchangebly. (708)
-Wrote "On the Knowing and Feelings of the Human Soul" It rejected the mechanical explanation of nature so popular with Enlightenment writers. (714)
- Revived German folk culture by urging collection and preservation of distinctive German songs and sayings.
- Most important followers were Grimm brothers, Jakob and Wilhelm for their collection of fairy tales.

21. Himmler, Hinrich pp. 1012 & 1050
- Commander of Schutzstaffel (SS) forces. (1012)
- Second to Hitler.
- Planned to eliminate thrity million Slavs to make froom for Germans. (1050)

22. Hitler, Adolph pp. 822, 986, 1038, 989, 1009, 1038-1039, 989-992, 1048-1049, 1034, 1036, & 1006-1009
- A united German state and such ideas influenced Hitler. To bring the "volk" toegther. (822)
- Hated Marxism which he associated with Jews. (989)
- Joined the Nazis.
- Tried a putsch at a beer hall in Munich and was sentenced to 5 years in prison. Actually stayed in prison for a few months. (991)
- Realized that he had to seize power by legal methods and did so by becoming Chancelor. (1007)
- Wrote Mein Kampf "My Struggle"
- Consolidated his power by having key SA people murdered.
- Leader of Germany during WWII
- Took country by country knowing that the Allies would do nothing. (986)
- Allied with Mussolini and came and Stalin. Later betrayed Stalin.
- Anschluss, union of Germany. Violated Versailles whenever he had the chance. (1038)
- Violated Munich Agreement of appeasement.
- Planned to cleanse the world for the master race. To obtain Lebensraum. And to adopt a few selected people from the lesser races into the master race. (1049)

23. Hobbes, Thomas pp. 307, & 504-506
- Most original politcal philosopher of the 17th century. (504)
- Embraced Calvinist beliefs.
- Knew Descartes and Galileo in 1630s due to support of new scientific movement.
- English civil war made him a political philosopher and inspired his Leviathan.
- Defined human will as "the last appetite before choice". (505)
- Saw mankind in a position of not a fallen Adam, but as a corruption from which only society could deliver people.
- Believed that absolute rulers would be more benevolent and less egoistic than all other people. (506)

24. Hume, David pp. 606 & 616
- Scottish philosopher that argued against belief in miracles and against belief in Christianity. (616)
- Wrote Inquiry into Human Nature in 1748 that argued against Christianity.

25. Kant, Immanuel pp. 307, 606, & 707
- Wrote 2 of the greatest philosophical works in the 18th century - The Critique of Pure Reason and The Critique of Practical Reason. (707)
- Against Locke who saw knowledge rooted in sensory experience alone, Kant argued for the subjective character of human knowledge.
- Believed that the human mind did not simply reflect the world around it, but actively imposed on the world of sensory experience of understanding.
- Believed that beyond "pure reason" is "noumenal" a sphere of moral and aesthetic "practical reason".

26. Kerensky, Alexander p. 940
- Moderate socialist leader of the provisional government of Russia that was later overthrown by Lenin. (940)

27. Lenin, Vladamir Ilyich pp. 867-869, 913, 941-942, 943, & 969
- Chief disciple of Marxist Gregory Plekhanov. (867)
- Studied law in St. Petersburg and was drawn into revolutionary groups. (868)
- Criticized trade unionism and settled for short-term gains rather than true revolutionary change for the working class.
- Favored industrial development.
- Believed in secret societies and training elite revolutionaries.
- His faction were called Bolsheviks which means majority.
- Had 2 principles, an elite party and a dual social revolution.
- Overthrew the provisional government and ruled Russia as a communist dictatorship.
- Immediately signed an armistice with Germany by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. (942)

28. Lloyd George, David pp. ???

29. Locke, John pp. 307, 462, 506-509, 598, 610, 622, & 755
- Wrote an essay stating that if the king broke the contract, the people had the right to depose him. (362)
- Most influential policical thinker in the 17th century. (505)
- Criticised absolutism. (506)
- Briefly was influenced by Hobbes.
- Wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding to explore the function of the human mind.
- Denied the existance of innate moral norms and believed the teachings of Christianity to be identical to what uncorrupted reason thought.
- Wrote Two Treatises of Gvernment during the reign of Charles II.
- Devoted his entire first treatise to a fefutation of the rights of kings over their subjects to those of fathers over their children.
- Believed that Absolute monarchy was inconsistent with civil society and can be no form of civil government at all. (509)

30. MacDonald, Ramsey p. 982
- A sensitive politician that understood that the most important task facing his government was proving tto the nation that the Labour Party was both respectable and responsible. (982)
- Asked by King George V to form the first Labour ministry in British history.
- His program consisted of plans for extensive social reform rather than for the nationalization or public seizure of industry.

31. Malthus, Thomas pp. 607, 775, & 780
- Contended thyat population must eventually oustrip the food supply and thus the immediate plight of the working class could only become worse. If wages were raised, the workers would simply produce more children, which would consume more wages and more food. (775)
- Encouraged working class to spend money on goods and not children.

32. Marx and Engels pp. 605, 607, 778-780, & 860-861 | 607 & 779-780
- Both were middle class Germans. (779)
- Engels published The Conditions of the Working Class in England which presented a devestating picture of industrial life.
- Both worked together to adopt the name Communist which was much more self-consciously radical that socialist.
- Communism implied the outright abolition of private property rather than some less extensive rearrangement of society.
- The class conflict between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat (workers) would eventually be won by the workers and this revolution was inevitable.

33. Mazzini, Guiseppe pp. 724, 790, 803-804, & 806
- Republican nationalist from Italy who flocked to rome in hopes to use the new republic as a base of operations to unite Italy under one government. (790)
- Most important nationalist leader iun all of Europe. (803)
- Founded Young Italy Society to drive Austria from the peninsula and establish an Italian republic.
- Used guerilla warfare.

34. Metternich, Prince Klemens von pp. 699, 728-731, 735, & 786
- Austrian prince who epitomized conservatism.
- Stopped national groups in fear of revolution and internal dissidance. (729)
- Supressed liberalism and student clubs of Germany by making an example with an execution.
- Persuaded representatives of the major German states to issue the Carlsbad Decress which provided university inspectors and press censorship.

35. Montesquieu, Baron de pp. 307, 606, 619-621, 623, 755, & 756
- Lawyer, noble of the robe, and a member of a provincial parlement. (619)
- Belonged to the Bordeaux Academy of Science.
- Published The Persian Letters in 1721 to satirize contemporary insututions.
- Most enduring work Spirit of the Laws was the most influential book of that century.
- Persued an empirical method, taking illustrative examples form the politcal experience of both ancient and modern nations.
- Determined that the best government for a nation depended on factors such as size, pupoluation, location, and many other factors.
- Believed that monarch's should have constitutional limits. (621)

36. Mussolini, Benito pp. 975-979, 1034-1036, & 1039
- Started Italian fascist movement.
- Leader of Fasci di Combattimento (Bands of Combat).( 975)
- Son of a blacksmith who worked as a schoolteacher and a day laborer before becoming active in politics.(976)
- His one real goal was politcal survival in a country were his Fasci organization was just one more small polical group in a country full of them.
- Took direct action in the face of the government inaction. Formed local squads of terrorists who disrupted Socialist Party meetings and beat up and intimidated leaders and supporters. (978)
- Controlled the local government in much of northern Italy.
- Fascists got control of the Chamber of Deputies and used that to get Mussolini to rule by decree.
- He transformed Italy into a single-party dictatorial state.
- Got the Catholic Chruch to make peace with Lateran Accord of February 1929.
- Allied with Germany during WWII.(1034)

37. Nicholas I of Russia pp. 743-744 & 790
- Took the throne after Alexander I died unexpectedly. (743)
- Argued with Constantine about who was tzar. He did not want the position.
- Decembrist Revolt was at his hands.
- Symbol of the most extreme 19th century autocracy. (744)
- Believed that serfdom was an evil but changing it now would make it more disastrous.
- Secret police and consorship was widespread during his reign.

38. Nicholas II of Russia pp. 827-828, 865, 870, 871, 928, & 939
- Son of Alexander III.
- Discovered that autocracy could not survive the 20th century. (827-828)
- Determined that Russia should be an industrial power in order to maintain its European military position and diplomatic role.. (865)
- Issued October Manifesto which promised Russia constitutional government. (871)
- Recaptured much of the ground he had conceded during the 1905 Revolution.

39. Nietzche, Friedrich pp. 884, 894-896, & 1133
- Portrayed Christianity as a religion of sheep that glorified weakness rather than the strength life required. (884)
- Educated as a classical philologist.
- He attacked democrary, nationalism, rationality, science, and progress. (894)
- Wrote The Birth of Tragedy which urged that the nonrational aspects of human nature were as important and noble as the rational characteristics.

40. O'Connell, Daniel p. 749
- Lead the Irish nationalists to organize the Catholic Association to agitate for Catholic emancipation during the Great Reform Bill.

41. Pankhurst, Emmeline p. 855
- Founded the Women's Social and Political Union. Her followers became known as suffragettes.

42. Pope Leo XIII pp. 887, 888, & 889
- Succeeded Pope Pius IX. (887)
- Addressed great social questions with encyclicals such as Rerum Novarum which defended private property, religious education, and religious control of the marriage laws. It also declared that employers treat employees justly, pay tem proper wages, and premit the organization of labor unions.(887-889)

43. Pope Pius IX pp. 790, 791, 804, & 887
- Liberal repuation. Reformed the administration of the Papal States. Later became one of the archconservatives. (790-791)
- People of Italy thought at first that they could use him to unite Italy. (804)
- Issued Syllabus of Errors which condemned all the major tenets of politcal liberalism and modern thoguht. Set the Church squarely against contemporary science, philosophy, and politics. (887)
- Summoned the First Vatican Council in 1869.

44. Pope Pius VII (and Napoleon) p. 688
- Concluded a concordat with Napoleon. Agreement required both the refractory clergy and those who hd accepted the revolution to resign. Their replacements received their spiritual investiture from the pope, but the state name d the bishops and paid their salaries and hte salary of one priest in each parish. In return, the church gave up its claims on its confiscated property. Invited by Napoleon to Notre Dame for his corronation.

45. Quesnay, Francois p. 618
- Leading spokesperson for the physiocrats.

46. Robespierre, Maximilien pp. 668, 671, & 672-674
- Single most powerful person on the Committee of Public Safety. (668)
- Worked in a political friendship with the sans-culottes.
- Opposed the war in 1792 for fear of sympathy for the monarchy. (671)
- Opppsed dechristianization as a politcal blunder.
- Brought much suffering to Europe in the following 2 centuries.
- Brought about the Reign of Terror.
- Selfless creater of his own destruction by destroying rivals for leadership without creating supporters for himself. (673-674)

47. Roehm, Ernst pp. 990 & 1009
- A captain, leader of the SA (Sturmabteilung) or storm troopers.
- Rival to Hitler
- Assassinated at Hitler's command.

48. Rommel, Erwin pp. 1046-1047 & 1052
- German General in WWII known as "Desert Fox".
- Drove the British out of Libya and back into Egypt until he was stoped at El Alamein. (1047 & 1052)

49. Rousseau, Jean Jacques pp. 307, 606, & 621-622
- Held a view diferent from Montesquieu's. (621)
- Had a few close friendships.
- Abandoned numerous of his children to foundling hospitals.
- Wrote Discourse on the Origin of Inequality in 1755 which blamed the evil in the world on the uneven distribution of property.
- Raised the question: What constitutes good life?
- Wrote The Social Contract and Spirit of the Laws.

50. Saint-Simon pp. 777, 778, & 779
- Earliest of the socialist pioneers. (777)
- Welcomed the French Revolution.
- Believed that modern society needed rational management not the redistribution of wealth but better management.

51. Schlegel, Friedrich p. 710
- Wrote a romantic novel Lucinde which attacked contemporary prejudices against women as capable of being little more than lovers and domestics.

52. Smith, Adam pp. 307, 606, 618-619, & 780
- Wrote Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Believed that economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic system.
- Urged that the mercantile system of England - including the navigation acts, the bounties, most tariffs, special trading monopolies, and the domestic regulation of labor and manufacture be abolished.
- Best way to encourage economic growth was to unleash i9ndividuals to persue their own selfish economic interests.
- Wrote Wealth of Nations.

53. Stalin, Joseph pp. 969, 970-971, 986, 1020, 1022-1023, 1024, 1025, 1063, 1065, 1073, 1077, & 1084
- After Lenin died two factions formed, one led by Stalin and the other by Leon Trotsky. (969)
- Led the right wing and was a major political manipulator. (970)
- Used the Committee of the Communist Party to edge out Trotsky and his supporters.
- Controlled the soviet state. (971)
- Embraced Trotsky's earlier economic position by controlling the farm sector and to free peasant labor for the factories in the expanding industrial sector.
- Got the Soviet Union already on war footing before WWII errupted. (1063)
- Initially allied with Hitler, later allied with the Allies.

54. Stavinsky, Serge p. 1003
- Small time French gangster who appears to have had good connections with the government became involved in a fraudulent bond scheme. Committed suicide after getting caught.

55. Strauss, Friedrich p. 884
- Contended that the story of Jesus was a myth that had arisen from the particular social and intellectual conditions of first-century Palestine.
- Wrote The Life of Jesus.

56. Leon Trotsky pp. 941-942, 968, & 969-971
- Led the powerful Petrograd soviet during the time of overthrowing Russia's provisional government.
- Led the left wing after Lenin died.
- Urged rapid industrialization financed through the expropriation of fram production.
- Forced out of Russia and eventually moved to Mexico to be murdered in 1940.
- See also Stalin

57. Victor Emanuel pp. ???

58. Voltaire pp. 307, 606, 611, 613-614, 615-616, 617, & 627
- Volataire offended French authorities and was jailed. He moved to England and wrote Letters on the English which praised the virtues of the English and and indirectly criticized the abuses of French society. (613-614)
- Moved to Geneva and created satire against French and European life.

59. William II of Germany pp. 924, 925-927, 928, 930, & 945
- Admired Britain's colonies and navy and decided to get his own for Germany.
- Tried to get Britian to join the Triple Alliance and decided to prove Germany's worth as an ally.
- Created a failed naval policy because Britian was wealthier. Wasted German resources. Yet still continued building a German navy.
- Turned Bismark's nightmare into reality with Germany on the losing end and caught in between two fronts.

60. Zola, Emile pp. 817 & 891
- Published J'accuse. Got convicted of libel and got one year jail time. (817)
- Demanded a new trial for Dreyfus.
- Turned realism into a movement.
- Between 1871 and 1893, Zola published twenty volumes of novels exploring subjects normally untouched by writers such as the problem of alcoholism (L'ASsommoir - 1877) and following the life of a prostitute (Nana 1880).

Know these terms and their relationship to this semester of Western Civilization:

1. "Orthodoxy, Aristocracy, and Nationalism": ???

2. "They shall not pass": ???

3. Anschluss: ???

4. appeasement, policy of: Attempt to appease Hitler by giving him territory that he wants in an attempt to maintain peace.

5. Battle of the Nations, 1813: Decisive loss by Napolean at Leipzig by combined armies of the Russians, Prussians, and Austrians supported by a lot of British money. (699)

6. Battle of the Marne, 1914: ???

7. Battle of Waterloo, 1815: Wellington, with the crucial help of the Prussians defeated Napolian at Waterloo in Belgium.

8. Beer Hall Putsch, 1923: Hitler's attempt to gain power in Germany. Was imprisoned for it.

9. Belgium (in WWI and WWII): The Germans went through it while carrying out the Schlieffen Plan.

10. Bolsheviks: Lenin's followers.

16. Continental System: Cutting off all British trade with the European continent to cause domestic unrest and revolution to force Britain to end the war. (691)

25. Enlightened Absolutism: Prase indicates monarchical government dedicated to the rational strengthening of the central absolutist administration at the cost of other lesser centers of political power. (627)

31. Fascism: Anti-Marxist, antiparliamentary, and frequently anti-Semitic governments. (975)

39. Hundred Days: Period of Napolean's return.

51. Mobilization:

54. Napoleonic Code: All priviledges based on birth that marked the old regime were abolished. Safeguarded all forms of property and tried to make French society secure against internal challenges. Government offices were chosen based on merit and not by purchase. (688)

57. Nationalism:

62. Philosophes: Writers and critics who championed reform and who flourished in the emriging print culture. (613)

63. Physiocrats: Economic reformers in France. Believed that the primary role fo government was to protect property and to permit its owners to use it freely. Believed that all economic production depended on sound agriculture.

74. Sancullotes: Jacobins more radical that the Girondists andd of the people of Paris. Means "without breeches". Sans-culottes were shopkeepers, artisans, wage earners, and factory workers. (662)

75. Schlieffen Plan: Battle plan used by the Germans in WWI developed by Schlieffen. Forces on the all-powerful right wing were to weaken the left opposite the French frontier. The weakness of the left was to draw the French into attacking the wrong place while the war was determined by the right wing.

79. Soviet: Councils of workers and soldiers. (939-940)

87. Utilitarianism: Creat codes of sicentific law that are founded on the principle of utility, happiness for the greatest number.(776)

83. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: Armistice between Russia and Germany signed in December 1917. Russia yielded Poland, the Baltic states, and the Urkaine. The Bolsheviks also agreed to pay a heavy war indemnity. (942)

Other Term Definitions:

Holy Alliance: Alexander I's idea where monarchs promised to act together in accordance to Christian principles. Symbol of extreme politcal reaction. Composed of England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Also known as the Quadruple Alliance.

Quadruple Alliance: See Holy Alliance

Scorched Earth: Destroying all food and supplies as they retreated. (697)

Treaty of Tilsit: Confirmed Fracnce's gains, reduced Prussia to half its size, and caused Prussia openly and Russia secretly to ally with Napoleon. (690-691)