Chapter 1:
Introduction

A Mixed Market

For centuries the West has been trying to make inroads into the Japanese market. The Portuguese, Dutch, British and Americans have all had extended periods of influence on the island nation; yet all have had difficulty significantly cracking the shell of Japanese consumers. Japan has a resilience against unwanted outside influence – and a keen sense of what is and is not needed – that has been cultivated for centuries.

In the 50 years since the end of World War Two, Japanese society has experienced drastic change. Though embracing American and European fashions, the nation has retained a lot of its traditional identity. It is still possible to see women dressed in kimonos; the traditional sport of sumo wrestling has been one of the most popular spectator sports per event in Japan for many years. Yet baseball, a distinctly American sport, has popularity that at the very least equals that in its country of origin, and Western musicians and movies are often as well known (or better known, in some cases) than their Japanese counterparts. The result is a unique blend of East and West, old and new.

For Japan, though, it is important to understand how much the culture has changed since the war. It is one thing to postulate that ‘things have certainly changed,’ quite another to find out the extent to which such change has pervaded society.          

One area in all developed countries that has seen change is the role women play in society. According to Oswald Spengler (Lebra et al., 1976), while men make history women are history. It is the woman who is responsible for the progression of the family line and the teaching of social values and skills. The changes this role has undergone is one of the more studied aspects of culture since the war, for study of the changes in the woman’s role is intertwined with study of the alteration of the family and, ultimately, society.

Almost mirroring these changes, advertising, too, has seen its own dramatic evolution in the past half-century. Scholars have debated whether the mass media (including advertising) are a mirror of society and its norms, or shifts in societal norms are propelled by the images fed through the various media (Hovland and Wilcox, 1990). The common element in these arguments, both pro and con, is that, in some way, media and society interact and, in so doing, have an effect, either positive or negative, on one another.

Assuming, then, that there is a relationship, this study’s purpose is to examine how women, as integral participants to any society, particularly Japan, are portrayed by advertising. The role a woman plays in society is complex, too much so to allow concentration on all parts. The focus, then, will be on images of women and their relationship to the home. Does the advertising associate women with working in and for the home and family?

The remainder of this chapter introduces contemporary Japan, beginning with that country's connection with the United States. Next the general economic situation of Japan will be reviewed. The chapter concludes with a look at the advertising climate in Japan and the role of media in Japanese society.

US ties to Japan

The United States has a large interest in Japan for several reasons. The two nations’ combined GNP is 40% of the world total, while their populations account for only roughly 10%. Trade between the two countries has been growing steadily for over twenty years (despite attempts to erect barriers), and each country is saturated with images and products from the other.

Somehow American businesses have never quite been able to penetrate the Japanese market. One cause is the loyalty Japanese consumers have to their nation's products and the distrust of other nations’; a recent survey found that 75% of Japanese believe their own country’s products are superior to foreign goods, with no respondents feeling Japanese products were poor in quality (Smith, 1996). There is, compared to the U.S., little preference for particular brands; national products are seemingly lumped into one basket. With such a majority of the population loyal to “home-grown” goods, it has been difficult for foreign manufacturers to gain any sizable niche.

The Consumer’s Market

Even with such brand loyalty, though, the Japanese market has been experiencing major problems in recent years. The economic 'bubble' that both fascinated and angered the West collapsed in the early 1990s. Since then the nation has been in a recession. 'Lifetime employment,' once the norm for employees of most Japanese companies, is declining in the face of layoffs and cutbacks.

However, Japanese consumers are still actively filling their role, thanks largely to reduced interest rates and the visible end of the recession. A survey by Japan’s Economic Planning Agency in 1995 revealed that consumers are increasingly optimistic about their lifestyle, with a higher overall percentage of satisfaction than any year since 1984 (JEPA, 1996). The survey also revealed that women are more satisfied with their social roles than men. Interestingly, female respondents who worked outside the home had lifestyle satisfaction levels similar to working males. Housewives, it seems, are by and large happier than either males or working females. Increased satisfaction was also found among those with higher incomes and among home owners.

The high levels of lifestyle satisfaction have been tied to lifestyle objectives. The Japanese consumer is typically very family oriented, placing family above material wealth or success.

Japanese advertising industry

The origin and growth of mass media advertising in Japan is similar to that of the United States and other developed nations. However, due to the dictatorial government that controlled Japanese industry and media until 1945, it was not until after World War II that advertising as a business saw any substantial growth. The major impetus for this was the rejuvenation of print media and the introduction of commercial radio and television. Also contributing to advertising’s growth was the new-found wealth of the nation in the early 1960s, which allowed even the most rural areas to receive television signals, thus creating the outline for the mass media culture.

Total advertising billings in Japan were $35.8 billion in 1995, compared to the United States’ $162 billion; 19 of the world’s top 50 agencies were from the U.S., and 14 were from Japan (Advertising Age, 1995). The Asian market, in terms of billings, belongs to Dentsu, whose 13 billion in 1996 was more than the next five largest agencies. While the organizational structures and theories of Japanese agencies are based on those in the U.S., evolution has led to some radical differences.

 In Japan advertising expenditures are consolidated among a few agencies. In 1994-95, the top five Japanese advertising agencies – Dentsu, Hakuhodo, Tokyu, Daiko and Asatsu – accounted for 41% of total expenditures. (Dentsu is the world leader among single agencies in billings.) Such a situation does not exist in the West. Also, though Western agencies rarely if ever handle competing clients in a product category, it is common for a Japanese agency to operate successfully in this fashion.             Advertising expenditures in Japan have been on the decline in recent years. Television is still the medium of choice, with advertising expenditures of ¥1,755.3 billion. Newspaper follows with ¥1,165 billion in expenditures. There is a marked difference in expenditures between these media and magazines (¥374.3 billion), and radio (¥208.2 billion). Only new media (¥15.8 billion) have seen consistent growth over the past few years; greater accessibility to cable TV is generally credited with the growth of this category.

Conclusion

The need for understanding Japan’s advertising climate is vital not just for American businesses who wish to enter or improve their position in the Japanese market, but also for sociologists who are concerned with the interrelationship of media and society. Also, for economic stability between the two nations to prosper, both must continue to have proper understanding of how those economies work. As an essential element to the market economy as it exists in Japan and the United States, the more researchers understand advertising, the greater their awareness the societal and economic forces that support it. This study will be a part of this complex puzzle of knowledge and will, in some small way, bridge the gap that exists in our understanding of the relationship between advertising and society.

Chapter Two will be a review of the literature relevant to this study. The third chapter will present the methodology to be used. Chapter Four will present and discuss the results of the analysis. The final chapter will draw the study to a close and present areas for future studies.