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NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF CLASSIC

SHAMANISM

Among the peoples of northern Asia, shamanism developed into a more definitely articulated and specialized form than among other peoples. Shamanism as practiced there is distinguished by its special clothing, accessories, and rites as well as by the specific worldview connected with them. North Asiatic shamanism in the 19-th century, which may be taken as the classical form, was characterized by the following traits:

(1) A specialist (man or woman) is accepted by the society as being able to communicate directly with the transcendent world and thereby also possessed of the ability to heal and to divine; this person is held to be of great use to society in dealing with the spirit world.

(2) This figure has special physical and mental characteristics: he is neurasthenic or epileptic, with perhaps some minor defect (e.g., six fingers or more teeth than normal), and with an intuitive, sensitive, mercurial personality.

(3) He is believed to have an active spirit or group of spirits to assist him and also may have a passive guardian spirit present in the form of an animal or a person of the other sex—possibly as a sexual partner.

(4) The exceptional abilities and the consequent social role of the shaman are believed to result from his being the "choice" of the spirits, though the one who is chosen—often an dolescent—may resist his selection, sometimes for years. Torture by the spirits, appearing in the form of illness, breaks the resistance of the shaman candidate and he (or she) has to accept the vocation.

(5) The initiation of the shaman, depending on the belief system, may happen on a transcendent level or on a realistic level, or sometimes on both, one after the other. While the candidate lies as if dead, in a trance state, the body is cut into pieces by the spirits of the Yonder World or is submitted to a similar trial. The reason for cutting up his body is to see whether he has more bones than the average person. After awakening, the rite of symbolic initiation, climbing the World Tree, is occasionally performed. 6) By falling into ecstasy at will, the shaman is believed to be able to communicate directly with the spirits either by his soul leaving the body to enter their realm or by acting as their outhpiece, like a medium.

(7) One of the distinguishing traits of shamanism is the combat of two shamans in the form of animals, usually reindeer or horned cattle. The combat rarely has a definite purpose but rather seems to be a deed the shaman is compelled to do. The outcome of the combat means well-being for the victor and destruction for the loser.

(8) In going into ecstasy, as well as in his mystical combat, certain objects are used: drum, drumstick, headgear, gown, metal rattlers, and staff. (The specific materials and shapes of these instruments are useful for identifying the types and species of shamanism and following their development.)

(9) Characteristic folklore texts and shaman songs have come into being as improvisations on traditional formulas in luring calls and imitations of animal sounds.

As an ethnological term, shamanism is applied primarily to the religious systems of those regions in which all these traits are present together. In addition, there are primitive religions in which some of the above criteria are missing but which are still partially shamanistic; e.g., among the Chukchi of northeastern Siberia, the specialist chosen by the spirits does not fall into ecstasy. Such religious systems may be regarded as marginally shamanistic.Phenomena similar to some of the traits of shamanism may be found among primitive peoples everywhere in the world. Such detached traits, however, are not necessarily shamanistic. The central personalities in such systems—sorcerers, medicine men, and the like—may communicate with the other world through ecstasy, but, unlike the shaman, they have attained their position through deliberate study and the application of rational knowledge. Although they perform ceremonies as priests, hold positions of authority, and possess magical abilities, the structure and quality of their transcendental activities are entirely different from that of the shaman.The residues of shamanism may be found among peoples who have been converted to religions of a later stage of culture—e.g., Finno-Ugric peoples who became Christians, Turkic peoples in Central Asia and Asia Minor who became Muslim, and Mongols who became Buddhists. Among the Finns, the tietдjд, a figure equivalent to the shaman, also is born with one more tooth than normal. Among the Osmanli Turks of Asia Minor, the horned headwear of the shaman is remembered in popular belief. Among people who formerly believed in shamanism but later were converted to various world religions (e.g., Christianity or Islam), former shamanism may be revealed through an analysis of their folklore and folk beliefs. An example of such a case is the discovery of former Hungarian shamanism. In northern Asia shamanism appears in various forms that may be attributed to differences in cultural phases. In the most northern parts, among the Chukchi, Koryak, and Itelmen, the shaman does not exist as a member of a special profession: a suitable member of the family—often an old woman—performs the activity of the shaman. Often the shamans are"changed sex"—effeminate men who have adopted feminine clothing and behaviour at the command of their "spirit." Among the Yukaghir of Arctic Siberia, shamanism is part of the cult of the clan; so also among pockets in the Ob-Ugrian peoples and among all three Altaic peoples: Turkic, Mongol, and Manchu-Tungus. These are instances of definitely professional shamanism, which, however, have been excluded by so-called higher religions. Shamanism was excluded among the Khalkha-Mongolian and eastern Buryat, who became Buddhists, and among the Kazakh and Kyrgyz who adopted Islam, and it was greatly changed and developed into an atypical form by the Manchurians. Certain scholars have investigated ecstatic actions that may be adjudged outside the area of shamanism in the strictest sense. Mircea Eliade studied North and South America, Southeastern Asia and Oceania, Tibet, and China (see below Shamanistic activity in other cultures), and S.P. Tokarev has also studied Africa. Some scholars suppose that the phenomena of shamanism spread to the two American continents when the first settlers migrated from Asia. The shamanistic phenomena in the Shinto religion of Japan are attributed to the migration of nomadic peoples from the territory bordering northern Korea. No such theory of migration has yet been developed to explain the "shamanism" of Southeast Asia and Oceania. Those who oppose this broad usage of the term shamanism argue that an apparent structural similarity among phenomena in widely separated areas does not justify an assertion of a common source or that typological similarity must be distinguished from a genetic connection. For them, shamanism may be attributed only to a precise pattern of cultural phenomena in a specific, well-defined territory, one that forms a concrete, systematic whole, such as the religious systems of the peoples mentioned at the beginning of this section.

The classic worldview of shamanism is found among the peoples of northern Asia. In their view the universe is full of heavenly bodies peopled by spiritual beings. Their own world is disk-shaped--saucerlike--with an opening in the middle leading into the Netherworld; the Upper World stands over the Central World, or Earth, this world having a manyfold vault. The Earth, or Central World, stands in water held on the back of a colossal monster that may be a turtle, a huge fish, a bull, or a mammoth. The movement of this animal causes earthquakes. The Earth is surrounded by an immense belt. It is connected with the Upper World by the Pillar of the World. The Upper World consists of several strata--3, 7, 9, or 17. On the navel of the Earth stands the Cosmic Tree, which reaches up to the dwelling of the upper gods.

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