May I say at the outset that I am no Buddhist scholar, nor am I a member of the sangha, the order of monks and nuns in whom ultimate authority for the teachings of the Buddha must reside. I am an ordinary Buddhist practitioner, but I will do my best to address the topic which has been given to me by Sathya Moorthy, your Coordinator of these Unity Meetings, and by Siddharth Sondhi, who first requested me to give this talk.

I understand that Sai Baba has declared 1997 the Year of Dharma (Right Conduct or Action). Sathya and Siddhart have asked therefore that I focus on this aspect of Buddhism in my talk today.

Buddhism in fact has a lot to say on this subject. Right Action, or Perfect Action (samma kamanta), as it is more frequently called in Buddhism, is one of the eight elements in what is called the Noble Eightfold Path. This path or way, when followed to perfection, leads to Nibbana, which is of course the ultimate goal for all Buddhists. So Right Action is one of the cornerstones of Buddhist practice, and I am glad to have the opportunity to share my thoughts on this subject with you. But first, if I may, I would like to say a little about Dharma and what that means to Buddhists.

For Buddhists, the term Dharma (or Dhamma in Pali) has a number of meanings, depending on the context. It can refer to the fundamental constitution or nature of a thing. It can refer to an object, thing or phenomenon. It can refer to an object of mind. It can also mean the norm, the doctrine, the law, and this latter meaning is the most familiar to Buddhists. Dhamma is the term used by the Buddha to refer to the universal laws discovered and then taught by him, and which he encapsulated in the Four Noble Truths. Buddhists traditionally pay homage to the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha at the commencement of any ceremony, that is to say, they pay respects to the Buddha, his teachings, and those who continue to proclaim those teachings.

So let us look briefly at these Four Noble Truths (cattari ariya sacca), which as I have said represent the Buddha’s summing up of the Dhamma, the law or doctrine.

• The first of these truths is that life is characterised by suffering. Most human endeavour is concerned with trying to avoid suffering and achieve happiness.
• The second identifies the causes of suffering. Directly or indirectly, all the suffering we experience is caused by craving and ignorance. We crave so many things, and our ignorance leads us to believe that these things will make us happy.
• The third states that it is possible to transcend suffering and attain the freedom and contentment of Nibbana. This is the state attained by the Buddha, where all the characteristics we associate with this existence (birth, death, movement in time and space, and the feeling of being a separate self) do not apply.
• The fourth states that the way leading to the end of suffering is eightfold, and involves the cultivation of our speech, action, livelihood, thought, understanding, mindfulness, effort and concentration. This way is usually described as the Noble Eightfold Path (ariya atthangika magga).

The eight elements of the path are traditionally divided into three groups: virtue (sila), concentration (samadhi) and wisdom (panna). All eight elements of the path are of equal importance and are interdependent, but for our present purposes let us focus on those in the virtue group. There are three elements in this group - perfect speech (samma vaca), perfect action (samma kamanta) and perfect livelihood (samma ajiva)

The Sutta Nipata (449-450) contains one of the many descriptions of perfect speech that are attributed to the Buddha:-

The path of Right Speech therefore encourages us to avoid telling lies, but it is more than this in that it urges us to be truthful. As we who live in this complex and devious world know only too well, this is a very difficult thing to achieve. We are also advised to avoid slandering and backbiting, swearing and using harsh language, wasting time with idle chatter, and generally not using our speech faculties in harmful or unproductive ways.

The Buddha’s own speech was described as always truthful, useful, spoken at the right time and motivated by compassion. These are the qualities that Buddhists should strive for in their own speech.

Perfect actions are those which have positive motives and positive effects both on oneself and others. A shorthand version of what is entailed in perfect action can be found in the five precepts. These are the five "training rules" by which ordinary Buddhists (ie those who are not monks or nuns) try to govern their behaviour. Ordained Buddhists take vows to observe additional precepts, including celibacy. The five precepts can be translated into English as:-

I undertake the rule of training to abstain from

• destroying or harming living beings
• taking that which is not given
• sexual misconduct
• false speech
• taking anything that causes intoxication or heedlessness

Taking life not only includes human beings, but all living beings. This of causes raises the question of vegetarianism. In earliest times, the Buddhist sangha were "homeless" - they wandered from place to place, only making a semi-permanent home during the rainy season, and they begged for their food. They were supposed to accept whatever food they were given, which would have on occasions included meat. The rationale for this was that it was permissible to eat meat provided one had not killed it oneself or caused it to be killed, and provided that the animal had not been slaughtered specifically for one’s own consumption. Many Buddhists, including monks and nuns, still follow this practice, especially those in South-East Asia. Later developments in Buddhism questioned the logic and ethics of this position, and called for total vegetarianism. As a result, Buddhist monks and nuns in North and East Asia are usually strictly vegetarian, and their example is followed by a good number of the Buddhist laity. Some Buddhist laypersons are vegetarian on special days, or when they undertake additional vows for a retreat period, but it is probably true to say that most are not.

Under "taking that which is not given" comes stealing, including all the more subtle means of misappropriation to which those in positions of power and privilege have access.

Under sexual misconduct would of course be included rape, adultery and all forms of sexual violence or exploitation. Pre-marital sex or even promiscuity are not expressly forbidden, but are to be avoided as they are forms of over-indulgence in pleasure which can easily become addictive. In recent times, some Buddhist teachers have concluded that there is nothing in the third precept to forbid gay and lesbian sex, provided it meets the same conditions as heterosexual sex in not causing harm to oneself or others. In fact, the third precept can also be rendered as "going the wrong way for sensual pleasure", that is to say, misuse of any of the senses. Buddhists are urged to be moderate in satisfying all their appetites, in order to maintain energy and alertness and to avoid the entanglements of craving.

The fifth precept, to refrain from intoxicating oneself with drink and drugs, was formulated because these things dull our awareness and concentration, and tend to relax our guard against behaviours we would normally avoid when not intoxicated. Breaking the fifth precept can increase the probability that we will break any or all of the other four!

Observation of these precepts helps in cultivating the positive virtues of

• compassion
• generosity and non-attachment
• contentment
• truthfulness
• mental clarity and mindfulness

The precepts are not commandments, but "training rules" which Buddhists undertake voluntarily. They are in effect promises or undertakings which we make to ourselves. They are undertaken not because we fear punishment by a deity but for our own benefit and the welfare of all other living beings. Buddhists believe that everything is subject to cause and effect, and all volitional actions have karmic consequences. If we do not behave in accordance with the precepts, we will cause suffering to others and ultimately make ourselves unhappy too.

The Buddhist texts contain extensive explanations and elaborations of each of these virtues. To take an example, we could look at giving or dana, which can be classified into four types. The first is the gift of material things (armisa dana). The next is the gift of work (parichariya dana), which means giving our knowledge, skills and time to individuals or organisations that need it. The third is the gift of fearlessness (abhaya dana) which entails giving comfort and reassurance, and instilling confidence. The fourth is the gift of the Dhamma (dhamma dana), that is to say the teachings of the Buddha. A popular Buddhist saying is that the gift of dhamma is the greatest gift of all. This can involve talking about it to others, or writing books and articles, printing them for distribution, and even supporting monks, nuns and institutions that propagate the teachings.

The Paramitasamasa describes the person trying to develop pure generosity:-

The fundamental principle underlying right livelihood is ahimsa, ie harmlessness, or not doing harm. Buddhists should seek a livelihood that does not cause harm to other people, animals or the environment.

Buddhism is sometimes considered to be too unworldly and having nothing to say about practical everyday problems. In fact, the Buddha probably had more to say on economics and social obligations than any of the other great religious teachers. Right livelihood deals not only with how we earn our living but also what we do with the wealth we accumulate through our work.

While warning us that money and greed are often linked, Buddhism teaches that with the correct attitude and understanding a person who accumulates wealth beyond basic needs can do a great deal of good and thereby accrue merit. The Buddha once explained to a wealthy benefactor, Anathapindika, the three kinds of happiness that can be derived from wealth provided it was "justly and lawfully won". On another occasion, the Buddha explained that the value of money is derived from how it is created and how it is used, and recommended that we divide our income and use it for four specific purposes.

• We should provide for those dependent upon us, our families, parents, etc.
• We should set aside a prudent amount for future needs (while avoiding the hoarding of wealth for its own sake alone).
• We should set aside money for what was known in ancient India as the fivefold offering, which today would be equivalent to taxation and other necessary expenses.
• We should use some of our wealth to support the clergy and religious institutions (and this should include charity to all genuine and praiseworthy individuals and organisations, irrespective of whether they are Buddhist or not).

Of course all of this applies only to laypeople, as monks and nuns are expected to lead simple lives free of the entanglements of possessions and family responsibilities, and to be entirely dependent upon the support of the laity.

The Buddha also provided guidance on social relationships and social behaviour. One of the most well known of the Buddha’s discourses is the Sigalovada Sutta, in which the Buddha gives advice to a young man called Sigala. Sigala appears to have been the archetypal "angry young man" who would not be governed by his pious father’s advice on how to regulate his behaviour. We can imagine that he got up to pretty much the same things that angry young men get up to these days. The father, just before he died, persuaded Sigala to agree that every morning after his morning bath he would perform the traditional ritual of worshipping in the six directions. It was believed that the various deities thus supplicated would bestow their favours on the supplicant. After the father’s death, Sigala was dutifully performing this ritual one morning when the Buddha saw him and questioned him on what he was doing and why. On hearing his answer, the Buddha gave a discourse which became known as the Sigalovada Sutta on how a householder, ie a layperson, should engage in more profitable activity than performing empty rituals. Instead of the deities of the six directions, the Buddha advised Sigala that he should concern himself with doing the right thing by six key groups in society - parents, family, teachers, friends and associates, employees, and clergy. The reciprocal obligations of each of these groups to each other are clearly spelled out.

The sutta contains very practical advice, valid even in today’s very different world, on such matters as how we should manage our money, choose our friends, conduct ourselves at work and spend our leisure time.

The common sense of the advice on friendship will be evident to all of us here. Real friends are those who help, who share our troubles with us, who give good advice, and who sympathise with us. Enemies in the guise of friends are those who associate with us for gain, who render lip service, who flatter us, and who lead us into ruinous behaviour. The six channels for the dissipation of wealth haven’t changed much either - drinking, gambling, bad company, staying out till all hours, indulging in expensive entertainments, and generally wasting time.

Needless to say of course, the sutta concludes with Sigala seeing the light, but it is not recorded whether he was any more successful in putting the advice into practice than the rest of us.

To sum up what we know about ethical conduct from the Buddha's discourses, there can be discerned three bases on which we can make judgements about our behaviour:-

• We should consider the consequences of our actions, their effects on ourselves and others.
• We should consider how we would feel if others did the same thing to us.
• We should consider whether the behaviour is instrumental to our goal of Nirvana.

If I may repeat an earlier point, the Buddhist precepts are not commandments, in that they are not rules dispensed to us by a supreme being to whom we are ultimately responsible for our behaviour. The Buddha taught that we are responsible to ourselves for our own actions and for their consequences. The precepts are not blanket prohibitions, nor a simplistic division of behaviours into wrong and right.

In fact, Buddhist ethics have been described as utilitarian, in that they are concerned less with "good" and "evil" and more with whether an action is "skilful", ie conducive to a good end in relation to the criteria mentioned above, and whether it is motivated by good intentions (based upon generosity, love and understanding).

Around five hundred years after the passing away of the Buddha, new directions in Buddhist philosophy, ethics and devotional practice began to develop. These became identified as the Mahayana, or "great vehicle" of Buddhism. The Mahayana tradition of Buddhism is now predominant in East and North Asian countries such as China, Korea, Japan and Taiwan. A form of earlier Indian Buddhism called Theravada, or "teachings of the elders" has remained predominant in South-East Asian countries such as Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Malaysia. Although these two traditions (and a third called Vajrayana, or "diamond vehicle" which developed in Tibet) agree on all fundamentals, they have differences in focus which reflect the historical, philosophical and cultural environments in which they developed.

One of the unique contributions of the Mahayana was the development of the concept of the bodhisattva, an individual who has won release from suffering and rebirth, but who chooses to remain in this world, the world of samsara, in order to help others. The bodhisattva undertakes voluntary rebirth through compassion for those still suffering in the world of samsara. Prior to this development, the spiritual ideal to which Buddhists aspired had been conceived of as only two:-

• The arahant, who with the guidance of an enlightened teacher overcomes the five hindrances and the ten fetters to fully transcend all passion and desire and to at last enjoy the cool bliss of Nibbana. Arahants seek release for themselves alone, although they put their remaining time in this world to good effect by teaching the Dhamma.
• Pacceka buddhas, who win this goal without the aid of another but never seek to impart what has been learned to others, although they might provide moral example.

Above arahants and pacceka buddhas are fully-fledged Buddhas who have achieved supreme enlightenment (samma sambodhi). Sakyamuni Buddha is the buddha of our particular era, but there have been others before him and there will be others to come.

The arahant and pacceka buddha reject the world and seek cessation in a kind of "beyond". Unlike arahants and pacceka buddhas, bodhisattvas maintain an "enlightened quiescence amid the hurly-burly of life". They remain in the world out of compassion and with the determination to help free all beings from suffering.

Those who aspire to become bodhisattvas seek to generate bodhicitta or "wisdom heart". There are ten perfections (paramita) which are to be cultivated by those pursuing the bodhisattva ideal. These are generosity, morality, renunciation, wisdom, energy, patience, truthfulness, determination, loving-kindness and equanimity. (You will have noted by now that Buddhists are fond of numbered lists - the four noble truths, the eightfold noble path, the five precepts, etc. Well now we have the ten perfections, so please bear with me).

This development gave a new direction to Buddhism. As time went by, the virtue of compassion (karuna) became increasingly highly valued, because it is the motivating quality of the bodhisattva. We now see many Buddhist organisations that are active in welfare work and in providing support for hospitals, schools and other social institutions.

Well, I hope this talk has given you some understanding of what right conduct means to Buddhists. In concluding, I would like to point out that regulation of one’s conduct or outward action is by no means sufficient for the practice of Buddhism. Only three elements of the eightfold path have to do with ethical behaviour - the other five are to do with the cultivation of one’s mental and spiritual capacities. Those who attempt to practise right conduct without concurrently developing these other capacities will in my view have limited their potential for growth. Nevertheless, morality is sometimes conceived of as the platform on which meditative practice and wisdom can be built. Thank you for your attention.

John Snelling, The Buddhist Handbook, Rider, London, 1992.

Venerable S. Dhammika, All About Buddhism, The Buddha Dhamma Mandala Society, Singapore, 1990.

Venerable Sri S. V. Pandit P. Pemaratana Nayaka Thero, Sigalovada Sutta, The Code of (the) Layman, Mahindarama Buddhist Temple, Penang, not dated.

Nyanatiloka, Buddhist Dictionary, Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines, Third edition revised by Nyanaponika, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, 1970.

Postscript: Buddhism and God

With respect, I feel I must take issue with the assertion that belief in and reverence for a supreme being is necessarily a defining characteristic of religions. Buddhism clearly meets most definitions of a religion, yet it is possible to practice as a Buddhist with no belief in a God or superhuman being(s). Buddhism does not deny the existence of gods or of other worlds, and indeed the devotional practices of many Buddhist traditions involve the veneration and invocation of special beings such as Avalokitesvara (known as Kwan Yin to many Chinese, or Kannon to the Japanese). However, at its core Buddhism is a non-theistic religion and, unlike other world religions, Buddhism is not a doctrine of revelation. The Buddha did not claim to be the bearer of a message from on high. He made it clear that what he taught he had discovered for himself through his own efforts.

The Buddha himself is revered not as a deity or supernatural being but as a very special kind of human being. He was a human who achieved the ultimate in development of his human potential. The Buddha taught that this achievement is within the reach of every human being, and he spent his life teaching a practical methodology which, if followed with purity of mind and great diligence, would enable others to reach the same objective. In other words, he taught a method rather than a doctrine. When questioned about the validity of his teachings, the Buddha did not refer to the higher authority of a deity. He explained that his teachings were based on his own direct personal experience, and he invited all who were interested to test for themselves whether the method he taught was effective.