TELECOMMUTING ON THE RISE In the United States, it is estimated that over 8.8 million workers telecommute at least once a week (Link Resources, 1994, cited in Langhoff, 1995). One of the motivating forces behind telecommuting in the U.S. is a provision in the law that requires all companies with more than 100 employees to reduce solo-driving among their employees. Another factor is stress. According to Nilles (cited in Levin, 1994) of JALA International, a telecommuting consultant, "there are negative productivity and morale effects on the good old urban information worker who's spending an hour and a half to two hours getting to and from work while inhaling carbon monoxide" (p.32). In Australia, there is some indication that the amount of telecommuting is spreading. In his review of the 1994 Australian Bureau of Statistics publication "Household Use of Information Technology", Dick (1996) found that 203,000 households list the main use of the home computer to be for "take home work". However, telecommuting does not necessarily mean only working from home- it also includes working from offices located at any distance from headquarters, such as at neighborhood work centers and telecenters. In the 1992 Federal Budget, the Australian Government allocated $2.8 m over the following four years for setting up computer and communication centers in rural and remote areas of Australia with the objective of enhancing economic, education and training opportunities (Irwin & More, 1994). As of 1996, the Australian Rural Telecentre Association reported having 36 telecenters in Western Australia, 26 in Victoria, 8 in NSW, 5 in Queensland, 3 in Tasmania and 2 in South Australia (ARTA, 1996).

THE PROS AND CONS Telecommuting has many advantages for both employers and workers. Not only does it allow specialists, the homebound or those too remote to participate in the work, it also creates more mutual respect, trust and worker’s loyalty to the company when allowed to work away from the office (Cross & Raizman, 1986). Importantly, telecommuting increases work productivity. In a survey conducted by AT&T in 1995 with Fortune 1000 managers, 58% reported that telecommuting increased worker productivity. In addition, Link Resources, a market research firm that conducts the annual National Work-at-Home Survey in the U.S., state that telecommuting can increase employee productivity by roughly 20% (Langhoff, 1995). Meyers’ (1996) study of 40 telecommuters in Australia suggests some personal advantages of telecommuting to include: being more open to new possibilities, new learning and adventures, and fewer interruptions at home. Most emphasised was the telecommuter’s ability to attain lifestyle goals and in some cases, to attend to child care responsibilities at the same time. Telecommuting also allows workers to have control over their own work schedule, satisfies lifestyle demands and reduces commuting stress. Gordon and Kelly (1986) suggest additional personal benefits to include spending less for gas and clothes, more contact time with family and a chance to work more independently in more comfortable surroundings. Telecommuting also provides employees with more flexibility in choosing living quarters and in being able to remain in a desirable job when they must relocate or the company must move (Cross & Raizman, 1986). In summary, telecommuting is a viable work option as employees who balance work and family life can also be productive workers. There are, however, downsides to working away from the office. The Australian telecommuters that Meyers (1996) surveyed reported social isolation, workaholism, lack of management support, role conflict at home, and difficulty in assessing resources. Other problems may include distractions from family members at home, frustration from technical difficulties, overeating, smoking and alcoholism.

Social isolation has been reported as the major drawback for telecommuters. The Diebold survey (1981, cited in Huws, Korte & Robinson, 1990) found that 56% of the telecommuters surveyed mentioned social isolation as a disadvantage. A telecommuter describes his own experience as going through several stages: an initial honeymoon period of 2-3 years which was accompanied by feelings of elation and high productivity was followed by a less satisfactory period accompanied by loneliness and isolation. These feelings of isolation can be reduced to a certain degree by networking with the use of electronic mail (Email), electronic bulletin boards or Internet Relay Chat. With networked computers, telecommuters can belong to electronic groups for regular discussions. Rice and Love (1987) show that employees use Email to socialise, maintain relations, play games and receive emotional support from others. However, electronic networks cannot replace FTF communication as they only transmit cues to a certain extent - nonverbal, visual and aural cues are missing, and are much more impersonal than FTF interactions.

II. THE EFFECTS OF CUES ON INTERACTIONS
Despite technological developments, "it is still the case that interpersonal FTF communication remains the most socially-oriented and richest of all communication processes", a stance taken by social presence and media richness theorists (Irwin & More, 1994, p.124). They posit that
mediated channels of communication lack the cues that are found in FTF, therefore are only suited for communicating simple, routine tasks. Social context and nonverbal cues are present in FTF communication and are able to convey meaning about social structure, status and influence. These cues also facilitate effective communication by allowing for instant feedback. When communicating via computers, the lack of such cues may encourage more equal participation, but can result in lower consensus in group processes and more asocial behavior.

SOCIAL PRESENCE AND MEDIA RICHNESS Differing media have different bandwidths which describe the diversity of cues that a particular medium can transmit, including the physical distance between participants, expressions, gestures, tone and meaning. FTF has the most bandwidth compared to other means of communication. Social presence theorists suggest that mediated communication filters out essential cues that are available through FTF channels. Short, Williams and Christie (1976) define "social presence" as a quality of the communications medium itself. It is the degree to which a medium is perceived as conveying the physical presence of those communicating. The authors argue that different media vary in their degree of social presence, and can be placed on a continuum according to their ability to transmit information about facial expressions, direction of looking, posture, dress and other nonverbal cues. As a result, direct FTF communication is placed highest on the social presence scale followed by the telephone, Email and written documents. It is argued that FTF communication is the most successful channel for conveying ambiguous, complicated messages, while a medium such as Email is only suitable for conveying more routine and clearer messages. For example, explaining to employees about new projects or why they are being demoted is better communicated in person rather than simply sending them an Email. Similarly, "media richness" theory (Daft & Lengel, 1984) suggests that communication channels differ in the extent to which they make issues less ambiguous, and propose that a medium is rich when it can transmit nonverbal cues, convey a sense of personalness, provide timely feedback, and transmit rich and varied language. The more a medium displays these attributes, the richer the medium. Media are also ranked similarly to that proposed by social presence theorists, decreasing in richness from FTF to telephone, Email, written personal communication, written formal communication and numeric documents.

Trevino, Lengel and Daft (1987) explain the significance of such an ordering for communication media: "when meaning is ambiguous, face-to-face communications will increase. However, in unambiguous situations, media such as memos, letters and Email are sufficient to carry the message" (p.557). Cross and Raizman (1986) suggest that communicating complex work instructions is more effective in person, rather than via the phone or Email (p.84). According to Irwin and More (1994), 60-70% of the meaning of an interaction is communicated nonverbally through gestures, body movements, eye contact, posture, tone of voice, dress and the use of personal and social space. Because telecommuting most often involves the use of text-based computer-mediated communication (CMC), physical and social cues have all been eliminated.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION Nonverbal communication occurs through cues accompanying language or separate from language that people may interpret as having meaning (Lumsden & Lumsden, 1993). The absence of regulating feedback such as head nods and tone of voice may create coordination problems to express understanding of a topic. However, on a FTF level, the employer can ensure that the worker understands all that is said and can receive immediate feedback as to whether everything is understood. Nonverbal cues in FTF communication can also assist in maintaining the listener’s attention (Rosenblatt, Cheatham & Watt,1982). Adrianson and Hjelmquist (1991) posit that nonverbal cues play an important role as they facilitate the influencing of others. Sproull and Kiesler (1991) state that "without nonverbal cues, it is difficult for a sender to convey nuance, communicate a sense of individuality or exercise dominance or charisma" (p.40).

Mazzi (1996) suggests that the facilities and spatial arrangements of an office support the activity patterns which take place and enforces structural status. For example, executives have larger and nicer furniture than middle managers while employees of lower rank may not get an office at all. According to Katie (1997), an office desk is a primary tool in establishing spatial communications. For example, office cubicles often found in large companies do not lend themselves to allowing the occupant to rearrange furniture. In addition, whether the work space allows for another chair for visitors also says much about the person’s work and status. Factors such as identity, uniqueness, territoriality and status become essential in reinforcing the place of each person in the organisation. However, working at home can lead to a perceived loss of status and visibility in the workplace. Those working away from the central office risk becoming isolated and subsequently losing social status. Since the office and physical possessions have come to represent the accomplishments and rank of an employee, relinquishing them entirely can be devastating. Telecommuters may not only risk losing their status but their social influences are also weakened. Taking the head seat at a table, speaking in a loud voice, and gesturing are no longer possible when group meetings are conducted from a distance. It is also not possible to hear the tone of someone's voice, or look them in the eye.

The lack of cues in text-based CMC, such as Email and electronic bulletin boards, can be complemented with the use of capital letters, asterisks, exclamation marks, and sideways-oriented text pictures called "smileys" or emoticons to communicate the tone of the text. A smiling face typed rotated as :-) suggests a joke or happiness, while unhappiness is conveyed by :-(. Although such cues signal mood, Sproull and Kiesler (1991) argue that they are "flat and stereotyped" and that "mild amusement looks no different from hilarity" (p.51). Managers of teleworkers must also recognise that the lack of cues in mediated communication can encourage "flaming" and be a barrier to reaching consensus.

LACK OF CONSENSUS AND FLAMING In general, results have emphasised the social disadvantages of communication via computers when CMC groups are compared to those that communicate FTF. It has been found that there is greater difficulty recognising and moving toward shared points of view when communicating with the use of computers. In addition, those in CMC groups are more prone to engage in verbal aggression and non-conforming behaviour than those communicating FTF (Keisler & Sproull,1992; Dubrovsky et al., 1991, cited in Floyd & Parks, 1996). The introduction of CMC has increased the speed at which group members can communicate, but it has not necessarily increased the speed at which they are able to reach a consensus. With few nonverbal cues to guide Email groups, reaching agreement in them is lengthier and more complex than in FTF groups. In Adrianson and Hjelmquist’s (1991) study, it took four times as long for a three-person group to reach consensus in a real-time computer conference than in FTF meetings. Feedback lags and weak interactional cues also make it harder to know how others are interpreting messages and how confident others are in their positions (Kiesler & Sproull, 1992).

Sproull and Kiesler (1986) posit that the tendencies to be argumentative and outspoken in electronic discussions often lead to increased group conflict. The tendency towards polarisation of opinions in an electronic setting, coupled with the disruptive nature of "flaming" retards arrival at a consensus. According to Cross and Raizman (1986), flaming refers to "the anger that ambiguous electronic messages can create, often without the sender realising it" (p.85). Flaming is impulsive, highly emotional, and often rude behavior that is rarely exhibited in a FTF setting. According to Sproull and Kiesler (1991), "today’s electronic technology is impoverished in social cues and shared experience", therefore, when communicating electronically, people "talk" to each other but they do so alone (p.39). As reminders of conventions in CMC are weak, the result is often reduced politeness and less concern for others. In accordance, Kiesler, Zubrow, and Moses (1985) suggest that groups communicating via computer are more conflictful and verbally uninhibited than those communicating in person. Their study shows that when cues are weak or nonexistent, people feel distant and somewhat anonymous and therefore, learn about each other less effectively compared to those who meet FTF. CMC users are generally isolated from social cues and feel safe from surveillance and criticism which invites open disagreement and confrontation. According to Sproull and Kiesler (1991), this lack of cues will encourage name-calling and generally asocial behavior. Through electronic messages, actions and decisions can become more extreme and impulsive than in a FTF setting. Research done at Carnegie-Mellon University suggests a number of explanations for flaming that arises during teleconferencing communications: it takes people longer to reach consensus electronically than in person; CMC is depersonalised as there is no visual feedback; the leader has less influence; there is little shared etiquette for participants; and there can be significant changes in the character and tone of conversation of participants in electronic teleconferencing systems (Eckholm, 1984, cited in Cross & Raizman, 1986). Nevertheless, some studies suggest that electronic communication can act as a means of socialising and encouraging more participation.

MORE EQUAL PARTICIPATION With advances in new technology, senior executives are able to receive messages via Email directly from their staff, unfiltered by supervisors or secretaries. As the lack of cues reduces discriminatory communication patterns, it can encourage more equal participation. According to Kirkpatrick (1992), research shows that in FTF group meetings, 20% of people do 80% of the talking because some members are shy, of lesser status, intimidated or too polite. Similarly, Sproull and Keisler (1991) posit that talking time in FTF meetings is mostly dominated by those of higher status. This holds true even when they are less knowledgeable and have less expertise in the subject matter. However, in electronic discussions, higher status group members participate relatively less while lower status members tend to speak more. The rationale suggested is that electronic messaging reduces the fear of appearing foolish in front of others, therefore encourages people to be more open. Rice (1984) suggests that in CMC, there are no status role markers and few physical and temporal obstacles to communicating with anyone else. In addition, all messages in electronic discussions and bulletin boards have an equal chance of being read and responded to because they all look alike; no one knows if the sender is an hourly worker or in fact the vice president.

According to Aoki (1995), the lack of cues in CMC not only encourages more equal participation but also facilitates better concentration on the discussion matter. When communicating in person, surface level differences such as tone of voice, eye contact, proxemics and gestures can become overwhelming and are often the cause of intercultural miscommunication. In FTF interactions, much depends on the person who speaks, what clothes they wear, their body language and facial expressions instead of what is actually being said. In electronic communication, however, participants tend to focus more on issues and arguments rather than on cues. After all, FTF communication can be dysfunctional if it leads to overload (Zahn, 1991). Yet, the advantages of regular office visits and meeting in person remain apparent and are crucial for effective communication between managers and their telecommuters.

III. REGULAR FTF MEETINGS AND OFFICE VISITS
As communication is the key element for successful telecommuting, managers must arrange for regular FTF meetings with telecommuters and determine how frequently they should check in to the office. Some may want employees to check once or twice a week, while others may prefer different levels of communication in addition such as daily phone calls. It may also be advantageous to visit telecommuters at their home offices. In their study of remote workers, Fritz, Narasimhan and Rhee (1996) found that in both part-time and full-time remote work arrangements, scheduled weekly or quarterly FTF group meetings were held. In one case, a firm felt that maintaining relationships between employees was so important that distributed workers came to quarterly meetings even if they had to fly to these meetings. Another case is where the manager of a remote office had designated "bonding days" when telecommuting staff spent time working at the central office explicitly to maintain relationships with coworkers there.
By attending regular FTF meetings in the office, telecommuters are able to keep abreast of any new developments, report the progress of their work, participate in decision making processes and socialise with their colleagues more effectively. Upton (1995) suspects that the crucial factor will be people’s need for contact with others- not only in the social context but out of a real need to stay fully informed about what is going on at the office. "Being there" also gives workers visibility: according to Kaplan (1996), "the biggest risk (of telecommuting) is that when you’re out of sight, you’re out of mind". It seems that bosses will not think about employees who are not there when it is time for promotion. Sproull and Kiesler (1991) point out that internal career mobility is lower among people who are unable to participate in the informal contact networks that operate in the workplace. In addition, the more often telecommuters keep in touch with the office and its norms and culture, the less the risk of trouble reestablishing if they return to the office full time. Studies continue to suggest that most employees look to their immediate supervisors as their chief source of information. Employees want FTF time especially with their managers. They need two-way dialogue where they can ask real questions and get real answers.

FTF WITH SUPERIORS FTF sessions provide managers the opportunity to receive feedback directly from organisational members. For employees and telecommuters, these sessions enable them to ask questions, express their views, offer ideas, and give and receive feedback. They also give managers the opportunity to hear first hand what is on their employees' minds. FTF communication is widely acknowledged as a vital element of any internal communications strategy. It is generally accepted that most employees would rather receive company information from front-line supervisors than from any other sources of such information. In Telecom Australia’s staff communication strategic planner, research showed that staff wanted increased FTF interaction and in particular, with their immediate superiors. The research report recommended an active programme to increase the quantity and effectiveness of interpersonal communication between staff and managers, suggesting strategies to include "management by walking around" and presentation sessions supported by FTF explanation (Irwin & More,1994). Central to these ideas is that communicating, along with planning, decision making and implementing policy is an integral part of managing. It involves walking around and talking, having FTF contact with other managers and staff. The purpose of talking accompanying the walking around is to open up and develop two-way personal communication channels, to ensure that there is clarity of purpose within the organisation, that managers and staff can give and receive feedback about work-related issues, and that people are informed and clearly understand what they need to know. Not only can office visits and in-person meetings with managers provide opportunities for telecommuters to communicate effectively with their superiors, but importantly gives remote workers an increased sense of belonging.

SENSE OF BELONGING Working away from the office can result in residual loss of contact and the feeling of being on the fringe of activities. Managers then need to keep telecommuters psychologically linked into the office by encouraging regular office visits and perhaps joining "the gang" for lunch or drinks now and then (Gordon & Kelly, 1986). A sense of belonging is of great importance to almost everyone. Fritz, Narasimhan and Rhee (1996) suggest that as employees increasingly perform work activities in remote locations, there is less opportunity to develop relationships with co-workers through FTF encounters which are important to satisfy employees’ needs for social interaction and belonging to a group. According to Peters and Austin (1985, cited in Cross & Raizman, 1986), people who feel they are a part of the team regularly perform far better than the rest. Without a cohesive spirit, many telecommuters are less motivated and feel little common purpose with their coworkers at the central office. Office visits also give telecommuters a chance to keep in touch with their colleagues and keep up with the latest gossip.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATION Daft, Lengel and Trevino (1987) suggest that FTF communication is the best method of informal communication because it has the most social presence and interactivity as compared to other modes such as the telephone, fax or Email. The maintenance of an informal communication system is crucial to efficiently accomplish organisational work. Informal organisational communication occurs on an ad hoc basis, that is, it is not scheduled or planned, and most often occurs when employees work in close physical proximity. According to Kraut (1989), informal communication and physical proximity serves many functions in an organisation including providing "the basis of supervision, socialisation, social support, on-the job-training, and the spread of corporate know-how" (p.21). The co-presence of workers defines the conventional office, and physical proximity is important as it allows for informal communication to take place. Employees of the same department are usually placed near each other in the office, defining the group, facilitating FTF communication, friendly social interaction and manager’s supervision. Much of the communication in organisations actually results from people bumping into each other at the photocopier or during lunch but when co-workers are physically absent and working at home, this is denied.

Many conventional offices rely on informal contacts and "chance encounters to convey information, what might be called "corridor network" (Upton, 1995, p.33). Because telecommuters are not in the office as often, they may be out of touch of what is going on both through official news and the grapevine through which 80-85% of communication acts are carried out in organisations. Irwin & More (1994) suggest that about 80% of grapevine information is accurate and cannot be ignored. In addition, "friendly small talk" is important to satisfy needs for social interaction and belonging to a group. Contact with the office allows employees to socialise with friends and keep open their lines of communication. Studies show this is important because most employees take a lively interest in company gossip (Cross & Raizman, 1986). As a remedy for telecommuters, Barnes (1994) suggests that they should be encouraged to communicate by using the telephone to keep open all informal communication channels, and staying within the decision-making loop with the use of Email. However, there are definite limits as to the amount of information that can be effectively conveyed via electronics. In addition, many would simply miss the daily social drama of being in the office, with its gossip, intrigue, politics and romance.
Studies on remote work suggest that the reduction of opportunities for informal communication have other negative consequences. Huws et al. (1990) found that the lack of social interaction with colleagues was a disadvantage of remote work, and that a reduction in communication with colleagues leads to a decrease in informal professional education. While telecommuters are not physically in the central office, they are less able to learn about new procedures or take up new work styles that their coworkers and managers may exhibit.

IV. CONCLUSION
With advances in new communication technology, telecommuting has become a viable work option. However, managers must be aware of its downsides including that of social isolation and the importance of nonverbal and social context cues in effective communication. Mediated communication may encourage more equal participation but there is often a lack of consensus and much asocial behavior not found when meeting FTF. Regular office visits and FTF meetings not only help telecommuters combat feelings of isolation, but also help maintain a sense of belonging and social networks.
In addition, employees place much emphasis on the importance of FTF meetings with their superiors which provide opportunities to ask questions, offer opinions, and give and receive feedback instantaneously. Managers must recognise the importance of FTF meetings with remote workers and keep telecommuting days to a minimum.

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Copyright: This work is owned exclusively by dykeypup (1997).