Imperial College Greenland Diving Expedition 1995: The Ikaite Holotype

'awarded annually to a member or group in recognition of outstanding achievement and research in the field of underwater swimming'

Suzie supported our plans from inception with advice and enthusiasm. Most projects involving travel, start with uncertainty and end up with confirmed arrangements. Ours never seemed to arrive at the point of confirmation. As the departure date steadily approached, our changing circumstances forced us to keep going back to Suzie to rearrange flights, right up to the week before travel. At times our meetings with her became daily and she became very much part of that group of persons whose input influenced the planning and structure of the expedition.

The members very much looked forward to sharing their success with her on returning home. It was therefore with great sadness that we learnt of her death from cancer during our stay in the field. Her unhesitating support for us during what must have been a very difficult time for her has been remembered with great respect. Our condolences go out again to her family and colleagues.

REPORT CONTENTS

This report has been written with several parties in mind, not only our various sponsors, but also ourselves. The report can be seen not only as a record of our adventures and findings, but also as a guide to those planning new expeditions, whether it be to Ikka Fjord, Greenland, or somewhere else completely different. With expedition planning in mind, what we have written might seem obvious, but it was amazing to me how many seemingly insignificant things can be forgotten (or almost so), or not thought of until too late, or things that if we had known about sooner, may have enhanced our stay etc. I know that we browsed through the expedition reports at the Royal Geographical Society looking for snippets of information and advice, and hopefully this report will continue with the tradition of helping others that come after us.

Someone reading the report from cover to cover, will find some repetition, where it aids the discussion etc, however we have tried to keep this to a minimum and kept subjects to the most appropriate section.

Keep up the planning it will all be worth it, I certainly came back with a great sense of fulfilment and to quote TS Eliot (Four Quartets, 'Little Gidding' ):

Prof. Doug Shearman, Senior Research Fellow, Dept of Geology, Royal School of Mines, Imperial College, Prince Consort Road, London SW7 2BP

The motive behind the diving expedition, was exactly that, ie a diving expedition to a remote and decidedly different location, with both adventure and a chance to dive with a purpose.

The original scientific aims and objectives of the diving expedition as given in our application for a Royal Geographical Society grant and approval were: To make a detailed study of the type locality for the mineral ikaite i.e. Ikka fjord in SW Greenland; mapping its occurrence, collecting samples on behalf of researchers and scientific collections in Britain and Denmark, and making an underwater video and stills photographic record of the site. The study was to be performed in co-operation with a Danish zoological expedition from the Zoological Museum of Copenhagen.

The survey was envisaged to be split into five stages as set out below, and generally, the expedition was able to adhere to this schedule.

First Stage: Reconnaissance dives performed as transits across the fjord to identify the locations of the mineral. Selection of a representative study area.

Second stage: Establish a permanent shore marker of known co-ordinates and a base line to act as a reference for this and any subsequent surveys.

Third Stage: Map the occurrence of ikaite columns and mounds on a plane just off the fjord bed. Three dimensional measurements of selected examples to create a computer digital elevation model of the features.

Fourth Stage: Sample the waters of the fjord and springs. Collect representative samples of ikaite. Core the ikaite columns and establish their internal arrangements.

Fifth Stage: Film the ikaite structures by both still camera and underwater video. Produce submarine stereo-pairs of examples of the mineral columns.

Inuit and Viking legend recounts a tale of how invaders were driven out onto the thin ice of a frozen fjord, the ice gave way and they plunged through the icy waters to their death. As they did so, they became rooted on the bottom as petrified statues. The taller columns often terminate in a hand like form, as if they are reaching for air. They say that the different size columns represent the warriors and their families, mothers, children and all. Even today if you peer through the waters of the fjord in the still of the morning, you can see them standing their motionless, preserved for eternity.

As early as 1819 Daniell described the synthetic hydrates of calcium carbonate (i.e. those with water molecules within their molecular structure). In 1831 Pelouze was the first to synthesise the hexahydrate. However, it was thought that the material could not occur naturally because of its high instability. Ikaite quickly decays to anhydrous calcium carbonate and water at normal room temperatures and specimens of ikaite are extremely rare.

In August 1962 all this changed with the chance discovery by Hans Pauly, a danish geologist working for the local cryolite mining company. He was taken on a picnic by the local danish navy officers to Ikka Fjord, where they discussed the columns with him and then sent down a navy diver to obtain a sample for him to study. This sample was then left to stand whilst they continued with their lunch on land. On returning to their boat several hours later Pauly observed that the mineral had decayed and realised that this was a new mineral. More samples were then collected, but Pauly had to keep them in a cold condition until he could return to his Copenhagen laboratory several months later.

Pauly went on to discover that the mineral was a hydrated form of calcium carbonate and by the change in weight, suggested that it was the hexahydrate. Pauly named his new mineral Ikaite after the fjord. Un-fortunately for science (or fortunately for the ICGDE members!), Pauly published his discovery in danish, in Naturens Verden (1963) - IKAIT, Nyt mineral der danner skær - and though a small note on the discoveryy was also published in the American Mineralogist (1964), the discovery went largely un-noticed by the geological community.

An important study of ikaite was made by Marland in 1975 who synthesised the mineral using the following 'recipe' - 100ml of 0.1M CaCl2 plus 100ml 0.1M K2CO3 added dropwise from burettes over 2-3 hours to 400 ml of H20 containing 1g KOH and held at 2oC - modified from Johnson et al (1916), to study the minerals' stability and conditions for formation. From this study, Marland concluded that whilst ikaite is the stable mineral phase of calcium carbonate at high pressures (>3 kilobars), its existence at earth surface temperatures and pressures could only be in a metastable state. He further noted that even in the deepest ocean basins, pressures are only one third of that required to reach the ikaite stability field.

Very specific conditions are therefore necessary if ikaite is to be precipitated close to or at normal surface pressures. Certain elements are essential to ikaite precipitation, these being sources of calcium and bicarbonate. It appears that for ikaite to grow in the place of the preferred precipitation of calcite, the presence of an inhibitor is also needed and this process will only occur in a very cold water environment.

Quite why ikaite is forming in Ikka Fjord is still unknown although it is understood that the above pre-requisites must be satisfied. All that was directly known prior to the expedition, were Pauly's observations - importantly that the mineral was precipitating from the waters of springs mingling with the cold fjord water (2-3 C) and a detailed geological investigation of the country rocks and map of the carbonatite-syenite intrusion complex made by Emeleus in 1963, which identified a possible source of the bicarbonate in the carbonatite. The carbonatite-syenite intrusion also offered a likely source of an inhibitor, in the form of phosphate.

In 1977 Kaplan (following discussions with Tatanskii), first postulated that ikaite may have been the precursor of a number of enigmatic pseudomorphs found throughout the geological record and first described by Friesleben in 1827.

Suess et al (1982), who after making the first discovery of ikaite since Pauly, on the Antarctic shelf, suggested that ikaite was the precursor of a group of unusual calcitic pseudomorphs known as the Glendonites, which are found associated with glacial marine deposits of Permian to Recent age.

Shearman and Smith in 1985 who confirmed the parent identity of the jarrowite-type (or thinolite) pseudomorphs as being ikaite.

Shearman et al (1989), also suggested that the thinolites in the Quaternary tufas & great tufa mounds of the Lahontan & Mono lake basins of the western United States, were also formed after ikaite. This hypothesis was enhanced in 1991, following the discovery of the seasonal growth of ikaite along the southern shoreline of Mono Lake.

Pseudomorphs now believed to be 'after ikaite' are found in strata ranging from the Precambrian (Dalradian) to Quaternary across the World. A notable example are the pseudomorphs preserved in precious opal from Cretaceous rocks at White Cliffs New South Wales. Australia.

With the possible exception of Mono Lake in its recent past, nowhere has ikaite been found forming the spectacular stalagmite-like columns found in Ikka Fjord. The remarkable structures now sub-aerially exposed on the south shore of Mono Lake, are wonderfully described by Russell the great American geologist of the last century. Russells' poetic description is reproduced here (Russell, I. C.,1889).

Plate 1. Tufa Trunks on South Side of Lake Mono. Height of main trunk, five feet. Source: Russell (1889).

'The character of the tubular lithoid tufa mentioned in the preceding descriptions is well shown on the southern shore of the lake, about a mile east of the end of the Mono Craters. Several acres at this locality are covered with irregular trunks, from a few inches to five or six feet in height, with a diameter of six or eight inches. The appearance of a few of these peculiar deposits is shown on Plate 1. The formation as a whole resembles a forest of gnarled and contorted trunks and stumps changed to stone. The trunk-like masses are not simple tubes with solid walls, but are traversed by many irregular passages which open at the top in a number of small orifices. They are porous and cellular throughout. On the sides there are also numerous openings about which tufa has been deposited, thus forming knobs and irregularities. At times, two or more separate trunks are united by lateral branches, but usually each one is the result of a single independent growth. These tubular trunks differ, however, from the core of lithoid tufa in the larger crags, in that they spring from independent bases and are spread over a broad area, instead of being grouped about a common center and united so as to form a single mass, expanding sheaf-like at the top. The impression which this imitation forest leaves on the mind is that it is in some way weird and uncanny. The silent and motionless trunks with their uncouth shapes recall Dante's description of the wood of the suicides. This fancy is heightened by the proximity of a sea whose flowerless shores seem scarcely to belong to the habitable earth.'

Doug Shearman, continued to be interested in the mineral and pursued the subject, following up leads on further discoveries of ikaite and possible pseudomorphs after ikaite. His aim was to get an expedition back to Ikka fjord and for further studies to be carried out. His wish became more realistic in 1991 whilst examining a student, Paul Seaman who was completing his degree and was also a diver. Through further discussion with fellow divers Anthony Taylor and James Passmore the idea became a reality and the expedition went ahead in the summer of 1995.

Though the mineral had since been discovered in other global locations, these locations were either seasonal or in deep sea sediments and therefore not readily accessible, as opposed to Ikka Fjord, where the ikaite was known to occur perennially. Though the Ikka Fjord area has been studied in some detail with regards the Precambrian carbonatite - syenite intrusive complex, the two expeditions of the summer of 1995 (Copenhagen University & ICGDE), were the first time that scientists had re-visited the holotype locality to re-study the mineral.

Due to the nature of Paulys' gravimetric analysis, it wasn't even sure whether the columns of Ikka fjord were indeed calcium carbonate hexahydrate, some other calcium carbonate hydrate, or a mixture of calcium (carbonate and other) hydrates

Since the Pauly discovery, there have been only six other reported findings of ikaite - in a variety of different geological settings - across the World.

[1] The shelf basin of the Bransfield Strait, Antarctica, from a water depth of 1950m and at sub-zero bottom temperatures. [1982]

[2] The Nankai Trough, south-east of Japan, from sediments at a water depth of 4650m. [1983]

The occurrence of ikaite in cold water conditions and jarrow-type pseudomorphs in glacial and periglacial sediments point to an obvious use in stratigraphy as a palaeo-geothermometer.

It is also suggested (for several reasons) that an understanding of its formation may be of use to the hydrocarbon industry:

(i) Its structure as a clathrate is interesting, being the same as the gas hydrates, for example, Methane gas hydrate is also (like ikaite) a hexahydrate [CH4.6H2O]. Gas hydrates are currently seen as a problem in cold environments both underwater and in the Arctic / Alaska / Siberia, due to their formation in gas pipelines, causing costly blockages.

(ii) Natural gas hydrates, are now seen as a possible energy resource - 'current, albeit crude estimates suggestt that there are about 10,000 gigatons of carbon stored in gas hydrates, which is about twice the estimate for carbon in all other fossil fuel deposits' (Paull 1995).

(iii) One mechanism behind the cooling of sediments allowing ikaite formation in marine sediments - adiabatic cooling due to expansion of gases on their release from hydrocarbon-rich sediments - also suggests a use in hydrocarbon exploration.

As ikaite forms in near surface conditions at the expense of calcite and other tufaceous deposits, it is thought that an understanding of the role of the inhibitor in this process, (it has been suggested that this may be either organic carbon or phosphates), may be of use to the water softening industry.

The geological setting of the area around Ikka Fjord is listed below in geochronological order, oldest first:

The basement rocks of South-West Greenland are comprised of migmatites and variable banded gneisess (granodioritic gneisses, gabbro-anorthsite bearing gneisses and quartzo-feldspathic gneisses of probable sedimentary origin), in which amphibolites with ultrabasic lenses, (the amphibolites themselves being derived from basic lavas and tuffs mixed with normal sediment material), occur as impersistant bands concordant with the foliation of the gneisses.

These basement rocks are of pre-Ketilidian age (approx. 2600 m.y.) and show metamorphism in the Almandine-Amphibolite (or Garnet-Metabasite) facies, i.e. High P. / High T. Regional Metamorphism and have been affected by 4 or 5 episodes of pre-Ketilidian folding. The basement rocks have been intruded by swarms of dolerite dykes from the Pre-Ketilidian to the Mesozoic Age. and more importantly by rocks of the Gardar Intrusive Province.

GARDAR PROVINCE (Gardar Intrusive Province / Alkaline central-type igneous intrusions)

The Gardar magmatism is thought to represent cratonic activity on the foreland of the Grenville orogenic belt of North America. It encompassed a period of intense volcanism and widespread faulting The province comprises 14 alkaline intrusive complexes and various dyke swarms. The province is remarkable for the broad range of alkaline rock types represented including some extreme if not unique compositions, especially in the Ilimaussaq (around Narsaq) intrusion, and for the widespread igneous layering which is found in rocks of many types.

The Gardar alkaline igneous complexes of Kungnat, Ivigtut, Ikka-Grønnedal, Ilimaussaq and Igaliko all lie within the same major structural fault block, i.e. the Ivigtut-Igaliko block; this fault block was the result of a period of compressional shearing, which largely gave rise to major WNW or W trending sinistral wrench faults (like those bounding the Ivigtut-Igaliko block to the North and South), and less extensive dextral wrench faults of a subsidiary nature, that trend from NW through N to NE. It is suggested that the major fault observed transecting Ikka fjord is one of these.

The Gardar magmas follow a single evolutionary path from basalt to syenite but then diverge to either oversaturated or undersaturated components (the latter being enriched in alkalis). Petrogenic, geochemical and field data suggests that the magmas evolved by differentiation in situ, or at low crustal levels from a basaltic parent magma (a primitive upper-mantle source). The divergence is not however related to either the age of, or the geographical location of, or the mode of emplacement of the body.

Three periods of emplacement are recognized within the province, (Early / Mid / Late Gardar), emplacement being by substantial stoping of the country rock. The oldest plutonic centre is the Ikka-Grønnedal complex, at around 1,327 +/-17 million years (m.y.) It forms an elongated (8 x 3 km) fault deformed complex of nephaline syenites and carbonatite.

The other complexes in the general area represent Mid-Gardar episodes, with ages of 1,245 m.y. +/-17m.y. at Kungnat (near Arsuk) and 1,248 +/-25m.y. at Ivigtut. The Ivigtut complex is the smallest known member of the province and was subjected to a Late Gardar mineralization leading to the formation of a large, ore grade cryolite deposit. This deposit, in which Pauly (the discover of ikaite) was employed as a mining geologist, was of such strategic importance - being essential in the manufacture of aluminium - that during the second world war, about 200 american troops were assigned to guard it.

Intermediate to (and/or contemporaneously with) these early- and mid- Gardar intrusive complexes came the intrusion of first a series of NW trending Lamprophyres and then a series of Olivine-Dolerite dykes (BDn's on Emeleus' map), emplaced along E-W trending dilational fractures. The oldest Lamprophyre cuts the Ikka-Grønnedal complex, but is cut by the BDn's and the Ivigtut complex; whilst the BDn swarms are themselves cut by the Kungnat complex.

The Ikka-Grønnedal Complex This complex is a nephaline syenite suite encompassing a wide range of petrographic types, these types grade very quickly into each other, often in the space of a hand specimen. The carbonatite is the youngest of the complex and consists of variable proportions of Calcite / Siderite / Magnetite and minor apatite. Numerous dykes cut the complex and extend well into the country rock. The amount of Magnetite is such that there was a period of iron ore mining in the area, and the phosphate content (apatite) was sufficient to be considered for mining.

According to Emeleus' map, the syenites exposed in the fjord are members of the upper series of the igneous complex and are 'Foyaites and Pulaskites'. The area is one of gneiss and metasediments, intruded first by a series of nephaline syenites and then carbonatites (the igneous complex), the area was then cut by a number of minor intrusions.

Though carbonatites are often associated with the metasomatic alteration of the country rocks they intrude, which in gneiss results in the formation of nephaline syenites and foyaites - a process known as fenitization - in Ikka, field evidence such as, the sharp contact between the syenites and the gneiss, show that this is not the case.

Following the emplacement of the lamprophyre dykes in the mid Gardar episode 1,245 m.y. +/-17 million years ago, there is no evidence of any geological activity, until the intrusion of a series of dolerite dykes in the Mesozoic. A period in excess of 1000 million years! and then nothing again until the Quaternary.

The Quaternary period brought with it a series of widespread glaciations & glacial erosion. The latter resulting in the production of corries of various heights or fjord bottoms of various depths - Arsuk Fjord, which is adjacent to Ikka Fjord reaches depths of 600m. And of course lead to the formation of Ikka Fjord itself.

The glaciations further shaped the landscape with the production of a number of typical glacial features such as roche moutonnees. The retreating ice dumped its load, leaving behind erratics and moraines and/or raised beaches (due to a sea level rise).

The level to which the sea rises, following the melting of a retreating ice sheet, is countered by the isostatic rebound (the amount the land rises after the weight of ice is removed) & ocean basin subsidence (due to the increase in the weight of water). The magnitude of changes in water level might conceivably be reduced by as much as a third, by this 'hydro-isostatic' factor - were the Greenlandic and Antarctic ice sheets to melt today, it is estimated that they would return 65m of water to the oceans, however after the 'hydro-isostatic' factor had been accounted for, this would result in only a 40m rise in sea level.

However, it is currently thought that neither ice sheets disappeared during recent interglacial periods, nor deviated from their present dimensions, so it is unlikely that sea level attained, much greater heights than it is today.

At the present, Ikka Fjord is considered a periglacial environment, with the watershead in a zone of discontinuous permafrost.

The below list, in chronological order (oldest first), is a diary based account of our expedition, how it came about & its planning [though some may call it organized chaos], with asides, anecdotes and thoughts at the time. Not everything is listed, many contacts were chased to no avail, but hopefully it will aid as a guide. Dates are given where possible.

JB: John Bradley JP: James Passmore KB: Kirsty Brown PS: Paul Seaman CJ: Chris Jenner DS: Doug Shearman AJ: Alan Johnson AT: Antony Taylor

June 1991: London, PS asks for an early viva so he can attend a dive trip The external examiner DS relates the ikaite story to PS, on discovering that he is a diver.

May 1994: Meeting is arranged with DS at Imperial College (IC), to get further information. Meeting is attended by AJ who is working on white smokers [no pun on DS!] Agree to look into the possibility / logistics of going to Greenland The proto expedition has 4 (diving) members.

However, there is one 'minor' problem, despite knowing the name of the fjord, we dont know where it is! The search is not helped by there being usually three different spellings for each place (Danish/Greenlandic/Inuit) in Greenland. At one point we thought we had it located on the east coast, but we eventually got it right - the SW coast.

Meeting of JP/PS/AT, to decide on our largely nominal expedition roles: PS elected after some persuasion as 'Leader' [some have greatness thrust upon them], as he is the more contactable person - being a research student @ IC. AT as a Company Secretary is elected as 'Treasurer'. JP as most experienced diver is elected as 'Diving Officer'.

05 June 1994: Copy of a letter is sent to the 3 main diver magazines (Diver/Scuba World/Sports Diver), requesting information on diving/conditions/local area in the hope that somebody may know the area. JP awaits the replies to come flooding in!

07 June 1994: Spoke to George Brown BSAC Expeditions Advisor, He was very interested in the trip and said that it fulfilled the expedition requirements to receive some BSAC funding c/o The Jubilee Trust. He also confirmed our previous DIVER review, ie. That there had been no previous BSAC expeditions to Greenland, due to difficulty in getting there and cost. However he did know of diving being carried out by some Joint Services Expeditions who reported it to be rather tedious due to a deficit of marine life - the fjords being swept clean by glacial ice every winter

[Thought that this may not apply to our area considering its relatively low latitude, but even if true, would not greatly affect our trip as we were going to look at some rocks and not the fauna.]

He could not be of much more help at the time but has promised to research it for us.

05 July 1994: Write to David Bridgewater, (ex DS student) and ex Deputy Head of the Geological Survey of Greenland, in the hope that he can give us some contacts etc.

July 1994: Long telephone conversation with Dr C. H. Emeleus - the geological mapper of Ikka Fjord in tthe sixties. Dr Emeleus sends us copies of his geological maps and photographs of the fjord.

21 July 1994: Enthusiastic response, giving moral support from Dr Eric Robinson - President of the Geologists Association.

September 1994: Discovered there was a NATO base in the next fjord and made our first contact with Søren Lund, the Naval Attaché at the Royal Danish Embassy (London). Several phone calls by Søren to AT, with information, following an initial letter. Informed that we would need to liase with the Danish Polar Centre (DPC).

AJ/PS go to Royal Geographical Society (RGS) to discuss our ideas with an expedition advisor

Speak to Henning Thing, Head of the secretariat for the DPC Henning visited the Ikka area in Summer 1994, to discuss the establishment of tourism in the area and the setting up of a nature reserve (including Ikka fjord). The area supports a large Musk Ox population. Henning mentions that there is another expedition planning to go to Ikka to study the unusual marine fauna.

On asking whether we might encounter Polar Bears - with the need therefore to take a firearm - Henning tells us that 'only if we're very lucky!!'

07 October 1994: KB replies to letter in Diver, enquiring whether she could be considered as a member. [Other than this reply and another in Feb. 1995 from an Icelandic Diver also wishing to join the team, these letters produced no other replies] A meeting with JP/PS/AT is arranged, and KB is accepted onto the team The proto expedition has five members.

19 October 1994: George Brown has not furthered anything . Further communication by ourselves has found out that there is no equipment available from the BSAC.

12/13 November 1994: AJ/JP/PS/AT attend RGS Expedition Planning Workshop, to gain further insights into expedition planning & logistics, to seek out possible leads on equipment and further members [Following this workshop, we realize that our expedition fulfils the requirements of a 'good' expedition - and is likely to get some funding. With this and other moral boosts, we decide to make a GO of the expedition.]

30 November 1994: Submission of our first budget and expedition aims etc to IC Exploration Board. The budget assumes that the expedition will comprise 6 diving members and the possibility that DS may attend, for some of the time. Budget comes to £28,201 Exploration Board requests that the budget be re thought, and re drafted. The sixth member proposed is Paul Easton - a Dr friend of JP

01 to 05 December 1994: PS/AT visit Copenhagen to meet DPC / Danish expedition members. DS arrives separately to give a lecture on ikaite to the Danes The Danes decide to make a geochemical study of the ikaite, as well as their original intention of a zoological survey.

07 December 1994: Meeting of the IC Exploration Board accepts our modified budget and gives us provisional approval.

Early December 1994: CJ is put forward by PS as an expedition member, to replace Paul Easton The proto expedition has six members Production of a full colour Expedition Prospectus Establishment of an expedition account and an initial deposit of £500 is asked from the proposed members.

15 January 1995: Letter is written to Rolf Darville - The Danish Royal Navy diver at Grønnedal, with regards possible assistance and diving conditions in general. [due to bureaucracy, this letter came to no avail, however in the field Rolf was extremely helpful to us]

25 January 1995: DS/PS/AT Met with Søren Lund, Danish Naval Attaché, to discuss progress of expedition. Plans for a grandiose buffet didn't materialize, and the four ended up in the IC senior common room canteen!!!

Early 1995: Applications for funding and company sponsorship is sought. [Like getting blood out of a stone.] Following chasing over £500 initial contribution AJ pulls out of expedition Expedition is back to five members

28 February 1995: Submit grant application form for the Gilchrist Educational Trust [the application was successful]

10 March 1995: JP to Stirling SUT conference, in search of further guidance on diving in arctic conditions and on the look-out for possible sponsors, bits of equipment, not least a coring device. [useful discussion with members of the British Antarctic Survey, but unfortunately no sponsors or equipment]

Mid March 1995: Attend the Diver show in London, in search of sponsors and equipment. Make an enquiry to Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC) with regards recompression chambers in Greenland / North America. Following a promise to lend us some drysuits in December, DUI approached to confirm the arrangement, which it was. Greatest success was in obtaining the loan of a Lowrance GPS/Echo sounder unit from their main importers - Simpson Lawrence.

7 April 1995: Reply from DDRC re Recomp chambers - No knowledge of any chambers in Greenland. [a fact confirmed by the Rolf on arriving in Grønnedal] Novice Theory lessons and exam given at JP's house Lessons are attended by JB who the team are considering as an expedition member

April 1995: JP attends (3 Day) Health and Safety Executive (HSE) Diver First Aid course, to revise medical skills. [Departure date for the shipping of the bulk of our kit is set for May just as originally envisaged, suddenly the time seems impossibly short, a lot of equipment is still to be obtained]

8/9 April 1995: Training weekend attempted at Swanage, however due to conditions, little is achieved. JB is provisionally accepted into the team. Still discussing the merits of team size vs. cost etc.

21 April 1995: Our first bit of media publicity c/o JP with an article in the Wandsworth Borough News, the article is repeated with a few changes in the Putney & Wimbledon Times and Brentford, Chiswick & Isleworth Times. The team is finally set as six members: JB/KB/CJ/JP/PS/AT

Easter 1995: Got hold of the equipment from the IC exploration board store, on trying to erect the tents, realize this is a task similar to the logical problems on the 'Krypton Factor' or putting up a DIY kit without the instructions. Managed to erect three large tents, two of which are assembled from a variety of parts and a lot of jerry rigging. Leave up tents, so that we may waterproof them and mend the holes, not helped by the resident puppy who adds his own. Still hoping that someone will lend us a boat and engine.

May 1995: All the big bits of equipment are finally assembled. In total we shipped out three normal pallets plus a larger specially built container.

03 June 1995: Medical questionnaire sent out by JP - All members were already in possession of a certificate of fitness to dive, (which is a stipulation of BSAC membership) - To get an accurate record of blood groups, drug and other allergies etc

05 June 1995: AT's continually revised budget: £19,751 (per capita contribution is £2350) Still no DUI drysuits - And none came !!!!

13 June 1995: Contact Northern Diver re Drysuits, they can't lend us any, but willing to sell us some suits at a reasonable discount.

01 July 1995: PS flies out to Greenland, to supervize the shipping of our kit from Grønnedal to Ikka and arrange the transfer of ourselves to Ikka from Arsuk when we were to arrive approx. 2 weeks later. [All done in the name of saving money but, a lot of hassle and time for little gain]

04 July 1995: Draw up a list of 70+ small items that we still need. 05 July 1995 Notified of Jubilee Trust Award

06 July 1995: Last minute panic, as someone forgot to get some new filters for the compressor Though we did pack some material to repack them, as a last resort

07 July 1995: 3 am: Apply the last coat of varnish to our home made clipboards Noon: Compressor filters arrive as promised, and even ordered the correct ones which wasn't bad from memory. Arrive at Heathrow just a bit over loaded, 24 Kg for one of our bits of Hand luggage! 6.30pm Depart Heathrow

08 July 1995: Flying over Greenland, from Iceland took us over the East coast, where the landscape is covered in glaciers. First thoughts were that we hadn't brought enough film.

On arriving at Narsarsuaq - an old american air base at the end of a glacier valley. We discover that PS had managed to arrange for us to leave our valuable 'hand luggage' with the Greenlandic tourism agency, with the idea that they would put it on a boat going down the fjord, to save us carrying it on our planned hike - to fill in time before catching the coastal ferry.

However there was a small catch, rather than the five days we had envisaged, we would have to do it (50Km) in three to ensure that we met it. We also had an hour to catch the last boat across the fjord.

Spent the evening sitting around a driftwood fire, drinking beers that we had cooled down on a stranded iceberg. Unfortunately JB used the same method to keep the milk cool overnight & when we woke up the iceberg had gone.

09 July 1995: First day of serious walking, took us along the fjord side in the morning, and past several buildings, though there was no sign of life. Then the ascent began & up & up & up, all made the more harder because there are no paths. But _amazing_ views at the top and then our descent, this was a little disheartening as we knew that we would have to climb up again in the morning, but there was no other way.

10 July 1995: Raining! Stopped for lunch near a hut, only to realize when we approached it, that it had been blown off its foundations and was lying on its roof. Discussed splitting up so that the fitter members could definitely meet up with the equipment, but decided to wait until the following morning. Then the dreaded assault, culminating in a steep pegmatitic scree slope - according to the guide books the name of the mountain Nakkaalaaq means Black Crumbly Scree, which is also apparently what Karakorum means.

Spent the night at the side of a lake in a massive corrie at about 500m, the floor of which resembled a moonscape, comprising of literally, crushed rock, like some giant steam roller had been moving back and forth

A quote in the guide book says of this place, ' If night-time sleep down by the lake is ruined by complaining or dismal cries, the culprits are breeding Great Northern Diver' !!!

11 July 1995: We reach Narsaq, in time to meet the boat, but when it arrived our kit was not on it. In fact we had to wait until the 13 to be reunited with our equipment, it arrived just in time to lifted off the first vessel so that we could carry it onto the second.

In our days of R & R, we got to thinking, If there are no trees in Greenland over about 2 ft tall, why is it that most of the buildings are made from wood?

There must also have been a good entrepreneur around, because, although the fjord was 8/10 covered in ice, they were selling it in the local shop!

13 July 1995: Travelling through sea ice is just... well surreal. Ice is always present though in differing amounts, but the sea is becalmed, despite there being a continual breeze.

Most bergs are bumped out of the way, or break up under the bows, but occasionally the ship comes to a grinding and sudden halt.

The mountainous coastline and colourful seascape is awesome, and thoughts, soon turn to the fact that we shall soon be diving in this water and it could be much colder than expected. The silent anticipation is deafening!!

14 July 1995: Getting off the ferry involved boarding a small motor launch and being driven ashore. PS had arranged a fishing boat to pick us up, and so it was that we arrived in Ikka in the early hours of the morning.

The journey reminded me [JP] very much of the book ' By Eskimo, Dog Sled and Kayak', well almost.

Terrestrial surveying was performed using a Nikon total station. The bathymetry of the fjord and ikaite distribution were mapped using a Lowrance GPS guided sonar. Detailed underwater baseline mapping of a 50m x 50m area of the fjord bed was undertaken by hand. The quality of the maps produced were tested through a series of random dives covering 2% of the bed of the fjord.

The survey of Ikka Fjord was undertaken with a Nikon electronic DEM-1 Total Station (1 second accuracy) linked to a DR-2 Datalogger. Observations from the DEM-1 were downloaded to the DR-2 which in turn were downloaded daily to a PC laptop (Dan Courier DX2-66 8/340) and translated using Atlas Economy software. Further processing and presentation of data was undertaken with Microsoft Excel 5.0, Golden Softwares' 'Surfer' and 'IDRISI'.

To assist in the hydrographic survey a Lowrance LMS-350A Sonar and GPS (kindly loaned to us by Simpson Lawrence), was deployed from the inflatable.

A 'floating' local grid network was established on grid north with its origin coinciding with a known latitude and longitude derived from the 1:75 000 Greenland Tourism Hiking Map (1994). After the establishment of a 2 km baseline alongside Ikka Fjord, grid north, latitude and longitude were derived from map measurements and averaged GPS readings taken over a period of a week. It is envisaged that any errors are within the plottable error of the final maps to be produced.

After completion of the baseline measurement, a network of ten survey stations were established around the full extent of the upper fjord. From this network it was possible to obtain over 200 observations from the DEM-1 detailing the high-tide mark of the shoreline of Ikka Bund. This outline and the station network produced from this survey was utilised for the hydrographic survey work and positioning of ikaite columns.

Data for a DEM of the surrounding environs was derived from the 1:75 000 Greenland Tourism Hiking Map (1994). Over 600 XYZ co-ordinates were obtained and compiled into a DEM comprising an area of approximately 10 km2. It is proposed to 'drape' further information, such as geology and vegetation, onto this model for the final presentation.

By traversing the fjord at regular intervals with the sonar and GPS devices attached to the inflatable, it was possible to record 541 XY positions and Z depth measurements, which were then processed to produce a depth contour plot of Ikka Bund. An additional 70 traverses across the upper fjord, at 50m intervals, observing the ikaite columns present on the screen of the Lowrance LMS-350A, resulted in the approximate positioning of 221 ikaite columns. Column heights were categorised as being either small (<1m), medium (1-10m) or large (>10m). The coverage of the resulting distribution map was verified by diving 30 random sites in Ikka Bund and checking the abundance of Ikaite columns using a 15m radius quantitative search pattern technique (see Diving section for details).

A selected area was also chosen for a more detailed underwater investigation utilising a team of divers. By measuring perpendicular offsets from a baseline to objects of interest on the fjord bottom, distributions and alignments were plotted to an accuracy of 10 cm over an area approximately 50m2. XYZ co-ordinates of either ends of the baselines were measured utilising the DEM-1 and taught buoys.

Three discrete permanent stations (XYZ) have been deployed on the shoreline of the upper fjord for future reference.

From the array of information collected in Ikka Fjord, several data sets have been compiled within the local grid network (the translation from this local grid to latitude, longitude is easily accomplished). These data set are graphically presented in the appendices.

3. STNK 8154.304mE 2817.696mN 0.5m (painted red cross on rock exposure next to shore).

As can be summized from the title, diving was very much an integral part of the expedition. Our objectives were to carry out the first geological survey of this unique underwater environment, to make a photographic record and to bring back samples, all of which we achieved, all these objectives required some diving input.

The diving was purely exploratory, we had only a vague idea of what to expect, based on the few land-based photos by the man (Hans Pauly) who first reported the occurrence in 1963. There were no underwater photos.

Divers view
From the (land based) photographs we had seen, we much expected the ikaite to form only small reefs or skerries. However, not only did it form these skerries, but also spectacular columns. These columns which were as varied as they were many, were not evenly distributed and gave the diver the feeling of moving through a petrified forest, often the columns would be packed together like some dense thicket, but occasionally they stood alone like an oak in a forest clearing.

Depth
The fjord itself is about 10 km long, is hemmed in on both sides by mountains rising up to 700m and approaches 200m at its deepest point. However the 3km region near the head of the fjord in which the ikaite is located, is relatively shallow, with a 'charted' depth of about 28m. During the period in which we were there, the fjord experienced a maximum tidal range of about 4m on spring high water tides. As a guide to tide times we were able to use the tide tables for Arsuk Fjord (to the North), though tidal prediction was not a crucial matter as far as diving was concerned.

Water Temperature
So what were the water conditions like? Interesting is the best description. The Fjord though generally ice free in the summer months - one ice berg did come to visit us - is very close to the interior ice sheet and consequently gets a continuous supply of water. Fresh water also seeps in from underwater springs. This results in a surface layer of fresh water up to 4m deep, overlying the sea water. The boundary between these bodies of water (a halocline), appears as a shimmering layer, and also represents a distinct thermocline. With temperatures above it of about 13oC and below it, averaging about 3oC, but on occasions, such as after heavy periods of rain, reaching almost zero. This interface which could be said to offer a perfect combination for the lazy diver, allowing him to effectively 'wash' down his kit at the end of every dive - an important task, required some careful buoyancy control - a diver would find himself suddenly negatively buoyant on approaching the surface at the end of a dive.

Visibility
Whilst reports of 'gin clear' visibility were generally true for the fresh water, the reports might be considered somewhat of an exaggeration for the sea water. Visibility was generally excellent in the first 5 or 6 metres, in fact unnervingly so when coxing the inflatable, as you continuously thought you were going to rip the bottom off the boat, when travelling over the large columns poking up from the depths. We later discovered that these pinnacles were always at least 3 metres beneath the surface. Beneath this, the visibility was generally moderate to good, at up to 8m,

Bottom Conditions
Other than directly at the bases of the large ikaite columns, most of the bottom was covered in a soft fine mud, albeit quite thin in places, which stirred up if you even showed it your fins. On the number of occasions that had us working on the fjord bottom, visibility was often reduced to zero, luckily however, there always appeared to be a slight current, which quickly carried away anything kicked up. We also had a slight problem with plankton towards the end of our stay - not just a problem in the UK!

Of the six expedition members, two joined the team as non-divers. Though the expedition could have functioned with only four divers, it was considered expedient, for efficiency, possible health problems etc to train them to dive as well.

With our equipment leaving by sea freight in May, it was first decided to attempt to carry out their Novice Training over a long weekend, in the usually relatively sheltered waters of Swanage Bay, however the weather and conditions conspired against us, so that our trainees could only get to experience snorkelling in zero viz.

Practical training was then switched to weekday evenings in whichever of our club nights was available. This slowed matters down considerably and inevitably the day came when our kit was shipped, without our trainees having completed their open water assessments. Not put off, we still managed to get the open water assessments done, but only with whatever bits of kit we could cobble together. This shortage in equipment meant that when we arrived in Greenland, neither of our trainees had yet used drysuits, nor either a pony or twin tank set-up, and excluding the 'Swanage experience' had only completed up to four dives a piece.

Diver Qualifications
The qualifications of the remaining expedition members, were Sports Diver, Dive Leader & two Advanced Divers, of which one was an Advanced Instructor. All had been diving for some time and were suitably experienced. In terms of BSAC branch positions this experience could be seen, in the fact that at the time of the expedition, the team comprised two Diving Officers (TGSAC + LGUSAC) and one President (LGUSAC).

Though on paper the idea of taking two novices on an expedition dive in possibly extreme conditions, might not look too sound, in reality as for general safety reasons, all dives were expected to be no-stop and as the novice divers did not have to be relied upon if conditions were too severe and further as the other members were eminently experienced to look after them, it was not considered a problem.

In actuality, conditions were nowhere near as extreme as they could have been. Most diving was very shallow and the fjord generally offered sheltered conditions akin to UK inland sites. The novices were of course of great use and had few problems.

Other Training
Though the majority of the expedition members had had experience through their degrees in surveying, it was considered prudent to learn as much as possible about underwater surveying techniques and how to apply land techniques to underwater problems. To assist in this aim therefore, most of the members undertook the 'Archaeology Underwater - Part 1' course run by the Nautical Archaeological Society (NAS) in early march. The two day course combined 8 hours of theory with a mock underwater (swimming pool) survey.

As in all diving, safety was paramount in our plans. The nearest recompression facilities were in Canada, and though we were able to borrow an oxygen kit from the Royal Danish Navy - oxygen is the only effective first aid for any decompression illness - we decided to take no chances. For this reason, all dives were planned as No-Stop dives, using BS-AC '88 Tables. As a back up some divers also carried dive computers. On the one occasion that divers exceeded a no-stop dive according to the tables - on one of the deeper circular searches - the dive registered as a no-stop dive on a computer carried by one of the divers. Never the less the 'deco' stop was undertaken. Divers were also advised to do no more than four days of continuous diving, again as a precaution against decompression illness.

To offset the need for rapid ascents in the event of a free flow, a real possibility in such cold water, all divers carried either a twin set or pony, with independent regulators. As a precaution against such free flows happening at all, where possible, the regulators were environmentally sealed. This being said, free flows are more likely in high performance regulators and of the three free flows experienced, two occurred with high performance environmentally sealed regs!

We all wore drysuits of course, with wet hoods and gloves. Dry gloves were tried but were found awkward to use and generally abandoned.

The first few days of diving (and the expedition itself) were put aside for orientation dives to the surrounding underwater geology and conditions. All members had to sort out their buoyancy, as they were either using a new dry suit, or equipment set up, or both. On top of this, our novices still had to learn how to use their drysuits. At the end of these few days the team were also well versed in the operation of the compressor and in boat handling.

Diving continued on an exploratory nature, looking for trends and differences in column morphology, this being incorporated with photography and filming. This diving was mostly as shore dives, as the boat was required for surveying the fjord and in the production of our basic bathymetric and ikaite distribution chart. Next followed an intense period of diving in support of our charting activities. The final dives saw the recovery of our samples for transport back to the UK.

In total 95 dives were undertaken on the expedition, amounting to just over 35 hours underwater. This works out at about 3 dives per day, versus the maximum envisaged 4 dives a day. The average depth was about 13m.

To verify the accuracy of our bathymetric / ikaite chart we had to perform a number of 'check' dives. These dive sites were selected on a random basis, with the aid of an 'in house' computer program, and were located by using transits, based on bearings to known markers on the shoreline, also calculated by of an 'in house' program.

For speed, ease and accuracy in setting up, it was decided to employ a circular search methodology for these dives. The basic mechanism of such a search, is that divers swim in circles around a central point. A 'datum line' is run out from the centre of the search area, so that the divers know when they have completed a 360o sweep. The radius for each sweep is kept constant by means of a 'distance' or 'search line'. The sweep radius is increased until the area to be searched has been covered, the amount of increase being governed by the underwater visibility and the size of the object(s) being sought.

The technique and tackle set up was developed by a pair of divers over a number of dives in areas of known ikaite occurrence and then discussed in detail on dry land prior to employment, the technique was further refined in use. The test dives also ascertained the preferable maximum radii (15 metres) of the searches and therefore determined the number of searches that needed to be completed in order to gain a result of statistical significance.

Each location was first marked using a small self-deploying shot. The reason for this being that the shot could be more easily redeployed in the event of it being either wrongly located, or giving a deeper second dive - as a safety precaution against decompression illness, all dives should be undertaken such that repeat dives (whilst the diver has a nitrogen loading), are always shallower than former dives.

The check on depth also allowed for the search tackle to be set-up (as much as possible) for the depth involved, thereby minimizing the scope for tangles on the bottom. This system also allowed a another search area to be located whilst an actual search was being carried out, thereby maximizing time.

On reaching the bottom after the deployment of the search shot, the first task was for one of the divers to run out the datum line, this was always run out further than 15 m so that it would be spotted in the event of the bottom being disturbed by the divers on their search(es). Whilst this line was being laid out, the second diver would sort out the distance line appropriate to the visibility. For the search itself, an outer diver would keep the line taught, whilst the inner diver swam back and forth, recording each of the columns encountered. A note was made not only of the number but also the morphology and size of the columns.

The 15 m long distance line was made up of six 2.5 m sections of floating line. These sections had a loop spliced into each end and were connected together using karibiners. This inbuilt connectivity offered a quick method of increasing the search radii if required and also allowed the divers to easily unsnag themselves when encountering any large columns, thereby avoiding a saw tooth dive profile - which carries an extra risk of decompression illness.

The search axis was set up about a metre above the seabed, to avoid snagging the numerous small columns and weed encountered. This set up also ensured that the bottom was disturbed as little as possible, thereby preserving the visibility.

Having completed our check dives and being confident that our basic chart was indeed quite accurate, we then set about looking to see if the columns were aligned in any particular direction. To do this we used a simple technique that we had learned on the NAS course. The survey involved the laying of a measuring tape as a 'jackstay' between two points.

A pair of divers would swim along this jackstay until a column came into view, at which point one of the divers would swim out to the column with a distance line (a second measuring tape). The diver on the jackstay would then move his end of the distance line back and forth along the jackstay, until the smallest measurement against the jackstay had been achieved - in effect, having achieved a right angle.
Both measurements were then recorded. i.e.

[i] The distance along the jackstay and,

[ii] The distance from the jackstay

The normal protocol was for one pair of divers to survey only one side of the jackstay and a second team the other. Both teams surveying along the jackstay in the same direction.

One end of the search was buoyed to enable its position to be fixed on our chart.

The initial attempt at setting up our first such survey, was quite amusing, we started by thinking the columns grew mostly out of the mud, so were a little surprised when trying to knock in our first spike, to hit rock. On our next attempt we entered the water like underwater mountaineers, with hammers, spikes, rope, shackles and goody bags etc, prepared for all eventualities.

One of the stated aims of the expedition, was 'making an underwater video and stills photographic record of the site', in other words to gather footage that could be used for scientific purposes, so that the morphology, colour and size of the ikaite could be captured underwater, and relayed to others. This aim was particularly important, because, until our expedition there were no underwater photos of the site.

The equipment used, had to be fairly specialised in that it need to be waterproof. The underwater still photos were taken using a Nikonos V with a TTL strobe (flash). The Nikonos V is a fairly robust unit as cameras go and will survive a severe flooding in the case of an 'O' ring failure etc, nevertheless, despite taking a spare O ring set, the expedition also took a 'spare' Nikonos V. Both Nikonos cameras came with a relatively wide-angle 28mm lens (equivalent to 35mm underwater). A macro extension for close-up photography was also taken, but not used.

Land photos were taken with a variety of cameras, though principally with a Canon EOS 100 (with auto-focus), and with 28-80mm and 100-300mm zooms, macro extension tubes and a semi-fish eye lens. A Benbo tripod was used for certain shots.

The video footage was taken using a Sony TR707 camcorder with Hi-8 film. For underwater footage the camcorder was placed in an AVS 8.0 'Video System' underwater housing. This housing is a very robust unit, with an anodized, cast aluminium body with a waterproof rating to 100m - the depth limit for SCUBA divers is only 50m. Despite its robustness, the housing was always handled with care, such that, prior to all dives, the dome port was always lowered into the water from the boat to check for leaks. The diver would also check for leaks on the descent - a task made easier because of an in built audio-visual alarm.

The AVS housing leaked once - grit on the O ring - but no damage was entailed either to the film, or to the camera, or for that matter to the O ring - though this would not have been a problem, as, with everything, we had a spare.

We also had a problem with the batteries, which stopped powering the video, though still 'half' charged. To counter this, JB constructed a battery discharger, after which we had no problem.

No lighting was used with the video for daytime (underwater or land) filming. On the one occasion in which we were filming at night (on a dive), more than sufficient lighting was provided with two underwater torches - UK400 Rechargeables (18 Watt Xenon Bulbss).

The provision of lighting for the underwater filming was a matter of concern for us prior to the expedition, however following advice we were told that we would not need it, and indeed this seems to be the case. In fact the sensitivity of the CCD was such that when panning up the ikaite columns into the light, the film tends to be 'over exposed', and indeed some of the best footage comes from a dive when the sky was overcast and the underwater visibility relatively low.

Lighting is more important for photographic film and also if you wish to capture the true colour of underwater objects - the spectrum of natural light is absorbed by the water at different rates, red being absorbed first and such that at depth only blue is left.

As with the precautions taken with the stills camera and film, the first bit of video footage was replayed through the camcorder viewer, to check that exposure settings and focus etc were working correctly. However, following advice that each time a Hi-8 tape is played its quality is degraded - not a problem for holiday footage perhaps, but a problem if you wish to get footage broadcast - no other tapes were reviewed in this manner (or any other). Since the expeditions return, these tapes have been played only twice, once to transfer the images to Professional VHS - these VHS tapes were used as our master tapes for the production of our first edited video - and once to transfer the images to Profeessional Digital Beta - which we will use for any further broadcast-quality footage.

Considering the importance of the need to make a photographic document of the ikaite columns and the fact that nobody likes coming home to find that their camera wasn't working properly, with regards exposure settings etc., it was deemed advisable to take and develop some Black and White film in the field. A dark room was improvised by waiting till the few hours of darkness arrived and then loading the film from the cassette to the development tank spiral in a sleeping bag. Prints and colour film developing in the field were impractical.

This test of the camera was in fact quite prudent, revealing the problem of flat batteries and batteries not lasting long enough underwater.

Film
The same film was used for both underwater and on land. The film and quantity taken is as follows:

Colour Slide:
Kodak Ektachrome Elite, 100 ASA, 36 Exposure (40 rolls), Colour Print: Fuji Super G, 100 ASA, 36 Exposure (15 rolls), Colour Print: Fuji Superplus, 200 ASA, 36 Exposure (5 rolls), B&W Print: Ilford FP4, 125 ASA, 36 Exposure (30 rolls),

Of the 90 films taken, 77 rolls were used. The success rate of the films was about 3-4 photos of a sufficient standard, on each roll. Two films did not work, but the footage was covered sufficiently by the other cameras.

Video Tape:
Sony Hi-8 60mins Metal Evaporated (x5) Sony Hi-8 90mins Metal Particle Professional (x1)

Development Equipment:
Developing Tank, Chemicals: (Film Developer, Stop, Fixer), Measuring cylinders, Thermometer, Basin (to wash the films post development), Cloths pegs (to hang the films to dry).

Antibiotics

Analgesics

Bandages

Miscellaneous Preparations

Gut

Eye

Skin

When planning any expedition, one of the first considerations must be that of safety and general well being. The more remote the location and the more hazardous the activity, the more this is true. When planning any dive - even a day dive at a familiar site in the UK, safety considerations must take priority and all possibilities and scenarios must be considered.

For example: - The Fitness and Experience of the Divers - The Tides and Weather - The Available Equipment - The Depth and Nature of the Dives - The Ability to perform a Rescue in the eevent of a Diving Emergency - The Ability to perform First Aid and get Medical Treatment

Obviously all planning should be undertaken to minimize the chances of there being any problems, but also, so that if the need arise, that a rescue can be put into operation without wasting perhaps valuable time. Furthermore training should be undertaken to ensure that if any problems do occur, they can be nipped in the bud before they have time to escalate into a major incident.

Whilst emergencies directly related to diving practices are potentially very serious, they are also extremely rare. The use of boats in general, compressors and general camp activities such as cooking are much more likely to result in injury, such as burns, fractures and wounds etc. Any diving expedition must therefore be careful to ensure they have all medical emergencies covered.

This chapter covers the various safety precautions (alluded to above), that the expedition considered. Other precautions relating to general well being, such as nutrition and safe drinking water, that also needed to be considered, are discussed in Field Logistics section.

Divers may have to undergo physical strain under adverse conditions and their reactions in an emergency situation may govern not only the survival of themselves but also that of others. Before anyone can undertake any diving or diver training with the British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC), they must first have a thorough medical examination and be certified fit to dive. Repeat medicals are required on a regular basis (every 5 years to the age of 40).

The Expedition Diving Officer stipulated that all the expeditionary members, were BSAC divers and therefore in possession of a current 'Certificate of Fitness to Dive'.

To supplement the information given in the medical form, in the event of a medical emergency, a confidential questionnaire was also required to be filled in by each member. The questionnaire requested information on blood group, allergies, and next of kin etc. and was in duplicate form, one to be held in the field, the other in the UK.

It was of particular importance to ascertain whether any expedition members were allergic to drugs, prior to departure, so that they could be catered for when assembling the first aid kits.

Prevention is better than cure etc, so vaccinations are important, however very few are actually needed for Greenland. In fact, only Tetanus was really required though Polio was also strongly suggested. Greenland suffers from the ubiquitous mosquito in its brief summer months, followed by black flies, however these only constitute a nuisance rather than bringing diseases such as malaria.

All team members, by virtue of their BSAC training had a degree of practical knowledge in current resuscitation techniques. Diving is a potentially dangerous occupation and as such it is imperative that all those who dive have a practical knowledge of rescue skills. For this reason BSAC training incorporates lifesaving and resuscitation skills right from the start of diver training - these skills are reinforced and developed at each further stage of diver training.

As mentioned in the Diving section, the lowest qualification held by a team member was that of 'Novice Diver' and even at this level, a diver is taught how to bring a disabled or unconscious diver to the surface in a safe and controlled manner, and when there, how to support the casualty and administer artificial ventilation (mouth to nose resuscitation) if required.

One important aspect of First Aid specific to diving is that of the supply of 100% oxygen (O2) in the event of a serious diving disorder, namely, Gas poisoning, Decompression Illness (the Bends), Cerebral Arterial Gas Embolism (CAGE), and Burst Lung. The immediate supply of O2 as first aid, in such cases often means the difference between death or paralysis or not.

Fortunately, the expedition was able to borrow a small oxygen set, capable of supplying one person for about 20 minutes. This was a personal loan from Rolf Darville, the Naval Diver at the nearby Royal Danish Naval Base at Grønnedal. This was a fortunate acquisition because the expedition was not able to ship (either by sea or air), any compressed cylinders, nor fill their cylinders on site with oxygen - which is hazardous and requires specialist equipment, or more importantly, get UK specification O2 cylinders filled in Greenland.

As with any First Aid techniques, the safe administration of O2 requires some training, for this reason it was important that at least two members of the expedition enrolled on a BSAC or equivalent, O2 administration course. Furthermore, in the field the O2 kit was set up for immediate use and all expedition members were given basic training in O2 administration.

Other than O2 treatment there is in fact very little else that can be considered as diver specific first aid. Secondly, as previously mentioned, whilst diving emergencies are potentially very serious they are thankfully rare, injuries from general activities being much more likely. It was therefore desirable that as many members as possible, had a practical knowledge of general first aid.

Most of the team members had previously undertaken some first aid training and the Diving / Medical Officer attended a Health and Safety Executive (HSE) approved, Diver First Aid course, just prior to the expedition departure. The course covering all aspects of first aid. As with the O2 equipment, in the field the contents of the first aid boxes was reviewed with everybody, and emergency procedures discussed.

Whilst first aid training is important to prepare for medical emergencies, it will not necessarily prepare one for all medical matters pertaining to living and operating in remote areas. It was important therefore, for the Medical Officer to obtain such advice from a medical centre. In our case this was from Dr Sarah Freedman at the Imperial College Health Service - who regularly advises on student expedittions.

Other considerations discussed included what first aid and medical supplies to take, and whether or not it would be possibly required to make injections or stitch wounds. The Medical Officer needed to consider the need to remain as self sufficient as possible and in a worst case scenario, the length of time that it would take for the medical services to arrive - in this case about 6 hours. It was decided that injections and stitching would not be required, merely to patch them up and administer pain relief.

Some of the drugs taken are only available on prescription, therefore medical advice was required anyway. We were lucky in that most of the drugs supplied were supplied free by pharmaceutical companies, for such use in student expeditions.

In transporting the supplies, everything was duplicated in case of loss or damage in transit. The following listing of medical supplies and drugs taken, briefly lists their uses, (largely precised from the IC Health Centre notes) and is catalogued here only as a guide to further expeditions. The expedition was relatively lucky in operating from a single base, to which supplies were shipped directly. ie the preparation of first aid and medical supplies was not hampered by the need to be constrained to a size or weight. None the less the kit fitted into a plastic tool box, with carrying handle (dimensions 45x21x21 cm). The expedition also carried a smaller first aid kit and the prescription drugs, whilst in transit to and from the base camp. This kit was also used whilst mapping in the surrounding mountains.

Used for treating infections, such as bronchitis, ear infections, infected wounds and dental infections. They should be taken at evenly spaced intervals over 24 hours. It is important to check for allergies against antibiotics e.g.. penicillin, before they are used. Most antibiotics take a minimum of 48 hours before any improvement in the symptoms is apparent. They should be continued for a minimum of five days, and can be considered as in effective if their is no significant improvement after 3 to 4 days, in which case you can switch to a different antibiotic.

Erythromycin: For persistent sore throats and tonsillitis. A useful antibiotic for those allergic to penicillin. Can also be used for ear infections, sinusitis and skin infections.

Trimethroprim: Particularly useful in urinary infections. Good for ear infections and sinusitis. A useful antibiotic for those allergic to penicillin

Co-amoxiclav (Augmentin): Contains amoxycillin - a type of penicillin, giving it activity against a broad range of bugs. Useful for bronchitis, sinusitis, ear infections and skin infections.

Buprenorphine (Temgesic): Related to Morphine, this should only be used as pain relief with severe injuries, such as fractures. This counts as a controlled drug and required a special prescription to obtain it and then a letter of authority to carry it for use in medical emergencies.

Diclofenac tablets (Voltarol Retard): A non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug. Good pain killer for soft tissue injuries, such as sprained ankle, bruising and backache. Not to be taken by those allergic to aspirin

Diclofenac cream (Voltarol Emugel): For pain relief of mild sprains, strains, bruises and soft tissue injuries. Not to be used if allergic to Aspirin.

Codeine Phosphate: Added to paracetamol it potentiates its pain relief properties

A variety of other mild pain relief drugs, for use with headache, migraine, neuralgia, rheumatic, period and dental pains and symptoms of colds and influenza Anadin Extra (contains Aspirin, Paracetamol & Caffeine) Ibuprofen (Nurofen) Soluble Aspirin (Disprin) Aspirin

Prochlorperazine (Stemetil): Both as tablets, for use with vomiting and nausea, and suppositories, to be used in cases of severe vomiting when tablets have failed, or when vomiting occurs with Temgesic.

Antacids: Relief of upset stomachs, indigestion and biliousness. Andrews Liver Salts Milk of Magnesia

Oral Electrolyte: Replace essential body fluids & salts lost during diarrhoea & vomiting. Dioralyte (powder): Commercial flavoured preparation. Sugar/Salt: A simple remedy using doses from a dedicated measuring spoon.

Chloramphenicol (Chloromycetin) Cream: An antibiotic ointment for use with conjunctivitis, styes and corneal abrasions.

Topical (skin) Steroids: Used to reduce the redness and itchiness of skin complaints. Efcortelan (Hydrocortisone) Cream: Mild Steroid for use with eczema, dermatitis and severe sunburn. Trimovate Cream: Strong Steroid, also containing an antibiotic and fungicide, useful for groin itch, troublesome athletes foot and to clear up slow to heal skin infections.

Daktarin: Medicated Talc for use on fungal infections such as groin itch & athletes foot

Antiseptic preparations: To cleanse and prevent infection in superficial cuts, grazes & broken skin, insect bites, sunburn, blisters and chapped skin etc Betadine: Antiseptic paint & dry powder spray. Not to be used if allergic to Iodine. Savlon cream Sudocrem

Audicort: Ear drops for treatment of otitis externa - an infection or inflammation of the canal between ear lobe and ear drum causing pain and tenderness.

Decongestants Sinutab: Also an analgesic (contains Paracetamol). Olbas Oil & Lozenges Mentholyptus Oil

Silver Sulpadiazine (Flamazine): Non-greasy cream for use on burns to aid healing, if there is a long delay in medical help arriving.

Dental kit - mirror, mouthwash tablets, temporary filling material & tongue spatula.

A first aid kit is something that a lot of attention should be paid and no expense spared, in the hope that you will never have to use it.

Decongestants - Minor analgesics: Headaches etc - Plasters: Minor cuts and blisters - Antiseptic Paint and Cream: Minor cuts and blisters - Diclofenac Tablets and Cream: Fractured Coccyx

The latter injury which occurred at the very end of the expedition, (to the medical officer whilst trying to scout around some Musk Ox!!), did not require hospitalization.

Safety does not just depend on having good first aid training and suitable medical supplies, but rather, on good forethought on possible problems and good planning on how to avoid these problems. Below is a listed a number of precautions taken by the expedition.

Diving As mentioned above, first aid for serious diving emergencies such as decompression illness is the administration of Oxygen, however such illnesses can only be resolved by the use of a recompression chamber. There are however no recompression facilities in Greenland, the nearest to us being in Canada. This was a serious affair for several reasons, not least because the greater the time before treatment the less likely there will be a good prognosis and also because any increase in altitude as might be expected in an air evacuation, is likely to aggravate the damage. It was essential therefore that everything was done to minermize the chances of getting a 'hit' - more so than on any regular dive trip.

For this reason all dives were planned using BSAC 88 tables. Tables assume rectangular dive profiles - which is rarely the case - and therefore offer some safety margin over dive computers which take this margin and give it to you as extended bottom time.

All dives were planned as No-Stop dives, ie dives requiring no compulsory in-water decompression stops. Though stops are normally not a problem, the greater the time spent decompressing, the greater the chance of getting a 'hit' within the tables. This is important also if you consider the context that high work rates, such as might be expected when carrying out surveys etc, increase the circulation and therefore the amount of Nitrogen taken up on a dive, possibly more so than is considered in the mathematical models on which the tables are calculated.

Continuous diving over several weeks can also result in a nitrogen build up in some (slow) tissues, which may result in a bend. It was therefore considered necessary to take a day off diving every fourth day.

Other than over-extending depth/time constraints, decompression illness may also be the result of a rapid ascent, as may be brought on when a diver runs out of air. This in turn being caused by bad practice or equipment failures, such as regulator free flows. For this reason all divers carried a redundant air supply as well as their main supply - in the form of a pony cylinder with a separate regulator.

Secondly, it was important that where possible all regulators were tested and environmentally sealed prior to departure. This was particularly important with the modern high performance regulators that were used, as these are more likely to free flow due to their greater air flow rates.

The practice of testing that the regulators were giving an adequate air supply, only after immersion in water at the start of the dive, rather than on the surface prior to diving, was also implemented. This cuts down on water entering the second stage, which in itself may lead to a free flow.

When operating a boat in open sea it is very important to be able to contact others in the case of emergency, similarly this is the case when operating from an isolated valley, both scenarios applicable to us.

Communication in such cases is usually down to emergency flares or marine VHF radios, both of these have innate problems.

Flares:
General logistics conspired against us as far as the carrying of flares was concerned. This being brought about because flares are basically explosives and as such they were impossible to ship. However, whilst flares could have had a secondary use in the role of assisting in the location of a casualty, by a rescue party, after the alarm had been raised, they were seen as of little use in the initial alarm raising. The reason for this being that to be of any effect they must first be seen by a potential rescuer. As the area can hardly be called populous and as most flares do not reach great altitudes (no greater than 300m), they were unlikely to be seen in this mountainous area, especially within the fjord with sides in places of up to 700m.

VHF Radio:
Unfortunately VHF radio has similar problems, in that, to contact another station the aerials must be 'in line of sight', on the open sea this can be more than adequate, however these radio waves cannot pass around or through mountains. In the case of a medical emergency at the base camp, it would have been necessary for an expedition member to first cross the fjord, and then scale its mountainous flank, before being able to relay a message. Luckily the nearby naval station kept a continuous listening watch.

Within the fjord itself however, the use of radios was no problem and they were routinely used to assist in the surveying etc. The radios used for surveying were Maxon GSX 3410, operating on 169.31250 MHz and with an output of 3 watts.

In able to use these radios, it was first necessary to make an application to obtain a license from the authorities, in which the possible frequencies that we could utilize were listed. It was also necessary for at least one person to hold a 'certificate of competence in radio telephony'. This application took us several months to obtain.

Insurance etc In the UK Divers are very lucky - there is a well oiled rescue service to call upon in the event of an emergency. Divers with Decompression Illness etc are whisked away to recompression facilities, and everything is paid for by the state. Overseas this is rarely the case, especially when it comes to payment. As nearest recompression facilities were in Canada, insurance to cover medical services including a medical evacuation was therefore a must.

Greenland, whilst not part of the EEA medical agreement, does none the less have a reciprocal health care arrangement with the UK, in which UK residents are entitled to emergency care on the same basis as local people. In our case this would have meant use of hospital facilities at the naval base at Grønnedal.

All expeditions have their problems of day to day living or logistics. This section deals with the logistics and problems of running our camp and carrying out our operations.

Nobody likes living on top of each other and as it was not required for us to back pack our load, it was decided to have one tent per person. Two spare tents were also taken and used for storage space. Several different types of tent were used: Ridge Pole (1), 'A' Frame (3), Hoop (1), Domes (3), neither with any great advantage over the other.

Three large heavy duty canvas tents were taken for work duties. A dry tent, for storing the photographic/electrical/first aid/tools/spares etc and with a work bench, for use of the laptop computer and other surveying work. A wet tent, an old bell tent - known colloquially as the 'Diving Bell', for use for storing dive kit and for changing into our dry suits. A mess tent, for the storage, preparation and consumption of our food. Thankfully, the local community were able to supply us with a number of old plywood doors that we used for flooring in these tents.

Of the above, only the dry tent was originally a single tent, the other two being cobbled together from a selection of modified tent components. For the diving bell, all that was needed was to produce a central pole, (in fact two were produced in case one broke - the replacement was not needed). The mess tent required considerably more fabrication and the notes to remind us in the field read like something from a MFI instruction sheet:

Uprights (two poles each), shorter poles at the bottom. Poles go through top of tent, where they are capped, in order, first by a wooden 'disc' (hopefully keeps out the rain), then the appropriate wooden block, * then the ridge pole & the canvas loop. Ridge (seven poles), goes through the loops on outside of tent and rests in the grooves in the appropriate wooden block. * The ridge does not protrude an equal distance at each end of the tent. The end poles have two sets of holes; at one end the upright joins at the outer hole [end A], whilst at the other end, the upright joins at the inner hole [end B]. Central pole has 'central' hole at one end (should be closer to end A). * Wooden blocks, these rest on top of the uprights, and with the aid of a nail and groove, support the ridge, each is individually crafted! and suits a particular position thus: the smallest fits onto the middle upright, the one with the more central nail hole fits 'end B', whist the one with the asymmetrical nail hole fits 'end A' with the longer end pointing inwards (towards the tent)!!

Most of the low terrain in the fjord, was either extremely bouldery or hummocky and either marshy or covered in dense shrubbery, only a relatively small area was deemed to be suitable for the campsite, being fairly flat, dry and shrub free. Never the less, the ground was far from perfect, being thin and rubbly.

To overcome the low purchase on the pegs offered by the poor soil, and to try and ensure that the tents would stand up to the occasional severe gusts of wind experienced, it was necessary to weigh down every peg with a boulder. Wherever possible, heavy duty (1cm in diameter x 30cm long), steel pegs were used. These were loaned to us by the Danish Navy. Furthermore, the three large work tents were also lashed down. The mess tent was further ballasted by food stored in the side pockets.

Despite our efforts, the extreme winds that we experienced during the early hours of the First of August, flattened our tallest tent - the 'Diving Bell' - albeit with no damage. The same winds also shredded the fly sheet and then broke the frame of one of the Force Tens! and also tore some of the canvas webbing supporting the mess tent.

At the end of our stay, all the boulders that had been gathered from the surrounding area for the purpose of supporting the tents, were built into a cairn as a monument to our efforts, this cairn stood approximately 1.5m tall!

Due to the ubiquitous biting mosquitoes, it was necessary to use netting impregnated in DEET (Diethyl Toluamide) on all tent openings. Similarly, expedition members usually wore personal netting over their heads when outside, and always had to wear insect repellent.

Obviously water supply is a vital part of any expedition. Not knowing exactly what to expect, we assumed the worst - glacial outwash streams with a high proportion of rock flour, requiring a lot of filtering effort before it can be used. One member who had previous expedition experience in the Karakorums, recalled spending most of his time on water filtering duties. However, whilst we did come across such streams in the Narsarsuaq region emitting directly from the glaciers, we were rewarded in the Ikka area, in that the water running off the ice sheet, was crystal clear.

As far as the need for water purification was concerned, we acted on local advice, (in the field), which was, that we didn't need it. This can be considered with the knowledge that there was no farming (animal or otherwise) or indeed human habitation on or around any of the watersheds draining into our fjord.

So, though we went prepared with Millbanks bags and ceramic pots for sediment filtration, and bottles of concentrated iodine solution, for purification, we ended up using none of it, and all with no ill effects.

Collecting water involved a boat trip down the fjord to one of several streams, depending on the amount of discharge. As discharge dropped, so the streams became little more than boulder beds and obtaining water involved first building a small dam, so that the water containers could be fully immersed in the pool that quickly built up behind.

The total capacity of the containers to hand amounted to 155 litres (10 l x 3 + 25 l x 5), this sounds a lot, but it was needed to be replenished approximately every two days. This works out at about 13 litres per person per day - covering all camp duties, washing cooking and drinking.

With water so readily available, water was not limited for washing purposes, even so some brave souls took it upon themselves to wash in the in the fjord itself, soap not a problem due to the top layer of 'fresh' water. One person even decided to go the whole hog and opt for running water, standing under a waterfall - just like the adverts but minus the tropical paradise.

Those who decided to wash their clothes, were rewarded by a ingenious bit of lateral thinking, involving the compressor which was standing on a pallet for stability and which produced a lot of vibration when under load charging our diving cylinders. By standing one of our plastic barrels on the pallet, with hot water and clothes thrown in, so to speak, we produced our own washing machine.

The expedition used environmentally friendly detergents / washing-up liquids, wherever possible.

The expedition used a portable loo - basically a seat over a bucket. This was set away from the camp, to avoid the attentions of any roaming Arctic Foxes. The bucket required about 5 litres of water, to which was added a (biodegradable) disinfectant in powder form. It was necessary to empty the bucket approximately every two days, the contents being emptied into a pre dug pit and then covered by a thin layer of soil. This process was repeated until the pit was almost full and the sods replaced. The shallow nature of the soil necessitated that several pits needed to be dug in the four weeks that we were in the fjord.

Great care was taken to ensure that no rubbish was left behind. Any unwanted packaging etc was burned in a shallow pit, which was back filled on our departure. Similarly perishable waste was also buried in a series of shallow soakaways. All cans, were flattened and stored until departure in one of our air tight barrels, they were then shipped back to the local community dump - it is used as infill at an old mine working.

Being an expedition with a large proportion of technical devices, meant that we needed a sources of electrical power. Being remote, meant that all such power supplies, needed to be from rechargeable sources (batteries). Recharging was made possible by means of a small generator - supplied to us at cost by Honda.

Most of our devices - portable laptop computer & printer, hand-held radios, diving torches, video camera and surveying equipment, came with their own specialized batteries. In the case of our portable stereo, GPS/echo sounder unit and fluorescent light, we supplied the power by means of a heavy duty 12 Volt car battery. This battery which we 'waterproofed' (using black plastic bin liners), was 'housed' in an old beer crate, to enable it to be easily moved between its day job - with the GPS - and its night job - with light and music. The battery was also used as a means of recharging some of our rechargeable batteries.

Undertaking an expedition to take advantage of the arctic summer and its long periods of daylight was obviously a large benefit. Nevertheless, lighting was required when working in the evenings inside the mess tent.

Lighting for the mess tent was provided by means of a portable fluorescent tube connected to our car battery. Lighting inside personal tents when required, was obtained by torch or more effectively by nightlite style candles. A paraffin lamp was also taken to provide lighting in the event of a failure with the electrical lighting, but not used.

Fuel in the form of petrol was required for the generator, compressor and boat engines, this obviously could not be shipped and had to be obtained from the local community.

In total we used about 175 litres of fuel. We were fortunate in inheriting some of this fuel from the preceding danish expedition. Never the less fuel wasn't as expensive as we first thought it might be, at approximately 50p per litre.

For cooking we relied on a small (two ring) gas stove connected to a gas cylinder, which we supplemented when necessary, with a second gas cylinder with a single ring directly attached. This second cylinder / ring was also used as a space heater, in the mess tent on most evenings.

In total we consumed three moderately large cylinders of gas (water capacities of about 50 litres), the last cylinder running out literally on the last morning, so that breakfast had to be cooked on the embers of the last rubbish fire.

As an experiment, more than anything else we made an attempt to build a bread oven. This was constructed by building a small stone-lined pit covered by a beehive-like stone/soil roof. A fire was lit inside and allowed to reduce down to embers. The dough (in a small container) was then placed in a preheated heavy enamel cooking pot over the embers and then oven entrance closed up.

In all we experimented three times with the oven, all with a limited edible success. Our third attempt produced something akin to quite good unleavened bread. Our lack of total success was put down not to a lack in the oven design, more a lack in our basic baking skills.

The planning phase of the expedition anticipated a high calorific diet, arising from reasonably active work in cool and windy conditions on land, together with shorter periods on and underwater, of fairly strenuous activity in colder conditions. The goal was to provide reasonable protein needs, backed up by large quantities of carbohydrate for the main meals, together with satisfying a regular demand for hot drinks and snack foods during the day. As the quality of food would impinge heavily on morale, the expedition was prepared to invest more money than the absolute minimum required to meet these goals.

In addition, we were aware that an active work schedule would not leave a great deal of time for cooking and other camp duties. Ease of cooking was therefore a consideration when purchasing foodstuffs.

Lack of information as to whether purchases could be made and at what price, from the nearest store, obliged us to ship the food out in advance with the equipment. Given that we had a commitment to ship a certain volume of goods to Greenland anyway, it is unlikely that local purchasing would have saved a significant amount of freight costs. We later discovered that local purchasing would have been possible, at prices not too far removed from UK ones. As the expedition was static throughout its stay at the fjord, weight and bulk of food were not material factors, so tinned foods were included. Lack of weight and volume considerations allowed a reasonable selection of cooking utensils and crockery to be included.

A list of quantities of food was drawn up with the assistance of Mrs Seaman (an SRN), with our circumstances in mind, and purchases were made in bulk from a discount warehouse. Approaches to supermarkets for support in kind prior to this purchase were promising, but nothing materialized. Volumes were calculated with a large safety margin and allowances for wastage (10%) and visitors (5%). In the event these were a little too generous and the resulting surplus was handed to the Royal Danish Navy on departure.

The pattern of meals tended to be 3 hot meals a day, with the main meal in the evenings. Consumption was always at least twice the recommended portion size, and calorie consumption was roughly estimated at 6000 / day. No one appeared to put on any weight - in fact if anything, weight was lost. The less popular foodstuffs were consumed last, leading to a bean based diet for the final week. This apart, the foodstuffs left over were mainly those requiring significant preparation and / or forward planning to use, such as pulses.

It was hoped that the diet could be supplemented with fish and bread, but our success in both these areas was rather poor. Some fresh food items were purchased from or donated by the Navy. Some foodstuffs were kept cool by digging a barrel into the permafrost. The only losses arose from rain entering the dried foodstuffs during our big storm.

Approximately five days worth of freeze dried food was purchased for the beginning and end of the expedition, supplemented with local purchases. These were mainly consumed on the 50km hike between Narsarsuaq and Narsaq at the beginning of the expedition and were of the 'Raven' and 'Peak' brands. These were all palatable, if not scrummy (the desserts), save for the 'Peaks' Steak Rossini, which was universally acclaimed as the most disgusting dried food members had ever experienced.

For a boat we used a 14 foot inflatable, powered in the main by a 25HP outboard engine. We also took with us an auxiliary 5HP engine. This combination was fine for our needs and often used to transport four divers and a non diving cox.

Our boat was our only source of transport and was often needed throughout the day for a variety of functions. To enable it to always be on hand with a minimal amount of fuss, an anchorage system was devised, so that the boat could be retrieved and moored by one person. This was doubly important, not only for convenience or urgency in an emergency, but also to minermize damage that could be caused when dragging it over the rock and shingle beach in the event of it being stranded by an outgoing tide.

A pulley system was set up, between a large boulder on the shore and a boulder and anchor on the seabed in deep (4m) water [see diagram], such that when the boat was needed it could be pulled ashore using one line and when finished with, could be moored again by connecting it to the system and pulling on the other line. The lines could be 'locked in place'.

In southern Greenland the period of greatest daylight occurs in the months of May, June and July, whilst the warmest and driest month is August. The expedition was planned to take advantage of all these factors, arriving in Greenland on the 8th July and departing on the 19th August.

The amount of daylight experienced, noticeably decreased throughout our stay. On our first day, (camping on the shores of Narsaq Fjord), the amount of full daylight was in excess of 20 hours, with the remainder of the day occurring as twilight. By the time we arrived on the shores of Ikka (six days later and further north), we were starting to experience longer hours of twilight followed by about 4 hours of darkness. When we left Ikka (on the 15 August) we were experiencing a lengthy period of twilight and over 6 hours of darkness. The period of twilight before dusk was compounded by a high mountainous ridge on the western side of the fjord, which cut out any sunshine in the early evening. The periods of twilight, however had no real affect on any the activities carried out, other than to reduce the amount of light penetration on dives.

During the periods of full night, the skies were almost always cloudless. Venus was in the ascendant and usually visible. Satellites came speeding over on a regular basis and the occasional meteor shower was also seen. Furthermore, though we were told not to expect it, we were rewarded on the last three consecutive nights of our stay in the Ikka area with spectacular displays of the Aurora Borealis, albeit in monochrome green.

The temperatures experienced were fairly constant for any part of the day. Day time temperatures, whilst not freezing were normally quite cold and usually required the wearing of two layers of clothing, the underlayer being a thermal one. The arrival of the evening twilight brought with it a rapid decline in temperature and at night it was usually several degrees below zero.

Temperatures were not recorded on a regular basis, but as a guide, the recorded highs and lows were 20oC (daytime) and -4oC (late evening) respectively.

The fjord was generally subject to a local weather system. The start and finish of a normal day were usually very calm. In the morning this was often accompanied by some low cloud, whilst the late evenings were mostly cloudless and very cold. The day itself was usually breezy but none the less, quite sunny. As with most camping 'holidays', however, we did get the occasional bit of rain. The worst of which was a period of over 24 hours of continuous rain, (which saw the fresh water layer of the fjord increase by over a metre and small streams turn into boulder moving torrents) and was accompanied by gale force winds that flattened several of our tents, including our 'Diving Bell' - an old fashioned bell tent, containing all our dive kit.

Föhn / Lee-Wave effect These gale force winds were attributed to the Föhn effect, a well known feature of local weather systems in mountainous environments. It is usually a mechanism responsible for the warm dry wind which occurs to the leeward side of mountains or hills. At its simplest, the fohn principle can be thought of as the air precipitating its moisture on the hills and giving cloud free (and therefore sunny) weather on the lee side.

However, in approximately 1/10 of cases, it results in the 'lee-wave effect'. In these cases the rising air meets a resistance to its upward motion, which in turn forces the air to descend. Hence the air 'bounces' up and down. If moisture is present, then every time the air rises a lee-wave cloud is formed. These clouds are often lens or cigar shaped, at least in cross section. The undulations in air flow are standing waves and the cloud can thereby stay in the same position relative to the mountains. The winds too are particularly strong and gusty, where they descend.

In Ikka the fohn effect results from very strong winds emanating from the ice sheet, and as we were warned are preceded by a fairly rapid rise in temperature. In our case, the temperature rose to 16oC at night, when temps would normally be expected to be below zero, and were preceded in the late afternoon by the ominous cigar shaped clouds.

We were told that in the winter, the fjord is covered by a 60cm to 1m thick 'sheet' of ice. From our aerial photographs, this ice sheet is still very much in evidence during the spring, however there was no permanent ice in the fjord during our summer stay.

On the other hand the surrounding seas and the larger, less restricting fjords, were full of ice, which was coming from the summer thaw of the local glaciers. Our stay was not entirely ice free, however and we did get a couple of small bergs coming to visit us.

Two dozen different types of species from the surrounding hillsides were collected for later identification by the botanists at Copenhagen (who forgot to collect specimens for their own project). These flora included Sphagna (mosses), Bryophytes, Pteridophytes (ferns, etc.) Graminoids (grasses, rushes, sedges, etc.) and a general selection of Vascular plants indicative of the surrounding tundra habitat.

Though there were often great expanses of Arctic Willow along the fjord - strictly speaking these are trees - thesse plants were never more than a few feet high. The general impression, then was a treeless landscape.

Land Fauna As far as mammals were concerned, evidence was seen for arctic foxes and hares. A largish herd (about 30) of Musk Ox was also seen in the area, towards the latter stages of the expedition. Musk were best described as looking like Thewells shaggy ponies, though considerably bigger and with large horns. According to the locals, the musk ox are considered more dangerous than polar bears, and can run up hill faster than they can down!

Very few birds were seen in the fjord, one notable visitor though, was a sea eagle.

Insects were the bane of our existence for most of our stay in Greenland. For the first three weeks, this was due to the ubiquitous mosquito, which more or less disappeared over night, only to be replaced a few days later by even more black flies. These flies lasted about a week, before disappearing after a full moon.

Marine Fauna The substrate supported abundant marine life. We saw anemones, crabs, starfish, sea cucumbers, cotton spinners, sea urchins, sea slugs, boring bivalves, (edible) muscles, sea squirts, filamentous algae and coralline algae (lithothamnium). On one occasion we saw a sea hare.

Fish common to the fjord included Arctic Char, Plaice, Lumpsuckers and Sea Scorpions, who followed us around inquisitively wherever we roamed - and particularly when we were digging arround in the mud. Jellyfish were also often painfully too common. Cod and eels were seen on occasion.

An initial first budget came to £28,201, at this stage, the lack of information prevented a more realistic assessment. the main differences between this budget and something more realistic, lay in freight charges (overestimated by £6000 , due to a whole container being costed) and an ability to borrow more equipment than hoped for.

At the time of drafting the first proposal, the UK had left the ERM and was doing well against the Deutschmark, (against which the Danish Kroner was pegged). All predictions were that the pound would at least hold its own in these circumstances. There was a need to present a budget that appeared lower in order to secure funding as a realistic project and the 5% allowance of £1221 was an early casualty, subsumed into the 10% contingency fund. In the circumstances, the pound moved from an exchange rate of 9.5 DKr to 8.31 DKr, which should be a lesson to anyone else so tempted.

Air fares to Greenland are high and this left the expedition with relatively high marginal costs. Although the option of increasing numbers to eight was considered, the resulting contributions to overheads was relatively low and allowing for the thinner spread of grants, the gain would have been negligible, even supposing that the right persons being found. On the other hand, the expedition could have stayed in the field at little extras cost, but time constraints prevented this.

The initial hope was that the split between donations and members contributions would be approximately 50:50. In the event, it was 1/3 to 2/3 prior to departure. The sale of equipment and photographic rights should eventually reduce the difference to the original goal or just under. The latter is based on financial contributions. When we consider that the expedition received considerable help by means of free assistance and discounts on some goods, the ratio improves. Excluded from this calculation however, is the personal spending of members on clothing, equipment and sundries for personal use, (including diving equipment).

The expedition had two policies. At the time the freight was shipped out in advance, the main policy had not been arranged. Accordingly, Cintrex Freight arranged cargo insurance for the round trip with an extension to cover the shipped goods in the field.

Travel insurance was arranged separately. The expedition sought several alternative quotes, but the travel insurance policy issued by Alexander & Alexander, tailored to expeditions (recommended by the RGS), was both comprehensive and competitive.

The exploration Board of Imperial College reimbursed insurance costs for equipment under both policies, together with the travel cover for the one current student of the college. The expedition paid for the rest of the travel cover and for extensions to the Alexander & Alexander policy to cover goods that accompanied members out by air but had to return by sea for logistical reasons.

The expedition had high hopes of financial support from the energy, chemical and water industries in line with the practical implications of a bettor understanding of how ikaite forms. In particular, the global warming and gas hydrate formation aspects should have been attractive subjects.

Approaches were made to: All major oil companies in the UK. Oil and gas consultancies specializing in pipeline work. The major electricity generators. Most of the large electricity distributors. Chemical companies involved in energy and / or water fields. Some water distribution companies.

Unless personal contacts were available, the approach took the form of a cold call by telephone, followed by a letter and expedition brochure if appropriate. With ONE exception, our efforts were fruitless.

The larger companies invariably invited applications to be made, but then wrote back to advise that they would not support the expedition. If a reason was given, it was often that the company concerned had chosen to support community based projects in the UK. Exceptionally, BP pointed out that they only supported conservation based expeditions. However, it seemed that the criteria set was charitable rather than based on an evaluation of a potential benefit to the industry.

Smaller companies were more straight forward in indicating that they did not support this sort of undertaking.

The exception was Lloyds Register of Shipping which was approached due to its interest in the energy business through is Offshore Division. The expedition was grateful for their donation of £200.

Appeals to charitable foundations were more successful and the following provided financial support:

Imperial College Exploration Board: £1250 to expedition + £716.38 to Insurances Gino Watkins Trust: £1500 Rolex Watches - through the RGS - £900 + Rolex watch Gilchrist Educational Trust: £500 British Sub-Aqua Jubilee Trust: £500 Oxford Brookes Alumni Association: £100 Royal Holloway University of London, Travel bursary: £50 Two other organizations provided a total of £57.50 against work done for them by individual members.

Other than cash sponsorship, members also approached a large number of equipment and other suppliers for support, - makers and distributors of diving equipment inflatable boats, radio and navigation equipment, video & photographic suppliers and food suppliers - largely this was also to no avail.

A full list of those who assisted us and our sponsors in money and in kind, is presented in the acknowledgements section, at the end of this report.

Other than funding etc, the expedition sought the support and approval of various bodies, for validation reasons. In addition the sanction of the Greenland Home Rule Government through the Danish Polar Centre (DPC) in Copenhagen was essential.

Applications to funding bodies, where appropriate, always sought approval of the goals of the expedition as both feasible and desirable, as a separate matter to the award of funds that might follow later. In this way applications could be made to purely funding bodies at an early stage with the advantage of already received approvals.

Though our formal application to the DPC was made without approvals from the RGS and Imperial College, our application was supported by our informal contacts with the DPC - gained by a visit to Copenhagen in December 1994 and support from the leader of the planned Danish expedition.

The DPC approval covered operational and safety matters and took the form of a permit, to be shown to any official authority requesting it. Future expeditions may wish to know that local police retain the power to revoke it. The DPC also obtained the permission of the Danish Navy for the use of the base facilities, for transit purposes.

The Greenland Telecoms Agency (Tele Attaveqaatit) licensed the hand held radios, used for local communication within the confines of Ikka Fjord.

Greenland lies within the European Community and accordingly, there were no taxes to be levied on expedition stores imported for our use. Nor was a 'Carnet de passage' required to ensure the tax free return of goods. Alcohol and chocolate would have been taxable had we chosen to import them, and firearms would have been subject to various restrictions.

Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) approval was not required. However, details of the expedition were passed on to the West European Department of the FCO for the attention of the Danish "desk", who passed them onto the British Consul in Copenhagen. At the same time, details of the British Honorary Consul in Greenland were obtained. Fortunately, this precaution proved unnecessary.

Throughout the course of the work by the team in the fjord, numerous observations were made of the ikaite and the local geology of the upper fjord area. The observations made by the team are presented here with, in many cases some brief discussion.

Syenite/Gneiss Boundary Evidence of an intrusive boundary with a slight cooked margin, (as opposed to a process of fenitization - see Geological Setting section) between the syenite and the gneiss, was best seen at a location on the shoreline just east of the small island. At this location the syenite passes (to the south), into a highly friable rock material containing a very high content of iron, in the form of pyrites.

Field Geology Map The map is only rough, but to produce a better map, would have required considerably more mapping. The main reason for mapping was to look at the predominant jointing patterns, in an attempt to review a possible control on the ikaite column distribution. The mapping whilst generally, not as widespread and detailed as that of Emeleus, was unique in that it mapped the island - which gave us a better control of the syenite/gneiss boundary across the fjord.

i) The distribution of ikaite columns lies within the syenite boundary. ii) Our map can be related to that of Emeleus by the similarity of some of the exposure and suggested boundaries. iii) It picks out all the main rock types, although there are many smaller units and a fair number of minerals that have not yet been identified

The water of the upper fjord (referred to as 'the fjord' here after) is strongly stratified both by temperature and salinity. The surface waters of the fjord are almost fresh and relatively warm 8-10 oC. At a depth of between 1-2m a halocline exists which also represented a distinct thermocline, below which the water changes at once to sea water at a much lower temperature of 2-3 oC. This interface made the underwater visibility poor for the first few meters as the two fluids of differing refractive index mixed giving an oily impression.

The bottom of Ikka Fjord is formed predominantly from fine, unconsolidated, black organic rich mud, broken by outcrops of syenite roche moutonnees and frequent glacial dropstones. Where streams flow into the fjord, deltas are formed and the bottom is strewn with boulders and pebbles, which, in the case of the river at the head of the fjord extend over some distance. The bathymetric survey revealed that the waters of the upper fjord are much shallower than those in the surrounding fjords, with a maximum depth of only 26m as opposed to 600m. Through the middle of the long axis of the fjord is found a deeper trench. This trench is broken in two by a shallower platform formed from the delta deposits of the river running down the major faultline on the mid NW side of the fjord. The depth reading revealed that the deposits from the delta at the head of the fjord extend for several hundred meters down the fjord giving a gently sloping profile in this area. Where the deep channel, beyond the delta at the head of the fjord starts, the growth of large ikaite columns has resulted in the construction of a pyramidal structure which is probably not as steeply sided as appears on the DEM as a result of interpolation and contouring.

Ikka Bund (the upper part of Ikka Fjord and survey area within which ikaite is found) is very sheltered from marine forces by its location. Although the tidal range is high, and surface currents are moderate, the tidal action affects only a few meters of surface and below this currents are much gentler to still. The entrance to Ikka Bund is a shallow constriction through the depositional efforts of a stream delta, an exposed roche moutonnee and possibly a terminal moraine. Thus current actions are further subdued and large ice bergs which could damage the columns may ground or miss the narrow entrance and so are mostly excluded.

During the winter months the fresh surface waters freeze down to 60cm. The effect this has on the ikaites is unknown.

Seemingly unrelated to the ikaite deposit was a fine white precipitate seen near the southern limit of the surveyed fjord. Whilst diving in this area on one occasion, the light green, weedy bottom appeared as a meadow with mist collecting in hollows. The hollows were several meters across and 20-30cm deep and the white precipitated could be wafted out of them in the same manner as smoke. Below the precipitate there was no green weed but a black sludge of decaying vegetable matter which itself was easily wafted up into the fjord water.

Ikaite was mapped as occurring exclusively in areas where the underlying geology is, or at least thought to be, the syenite complex, identified from Emeleus (1963) and our own observations. Thus, the first occurrences mapped, start abruptly on the seabed over the rocks of the syenite complex, as the delta deposits thin. The columns were found with varying density down the fjord ceasing at a point where the syenite complex stops against what is probably the gneiss, before the largest NS fault zone mapped by Emeleus (1963) that dissects the mountain ridges on the NW side of the fjord.

Along the length of the surveyed area of the upper fjord, the ikaite was observed to show differing form. Although the ikaite occurrence was a continuum it can be divided into three broad zones, the upper, middle and lower zones. All zones lie within the limits of the syenite intrusion.

Upper Zone In the upper zone, towards the head of the fjord, ikaite forms great towering columns up to 18m high. The roots of these great columns are obscured by talus deposits of mud and fecal products from organisms on the columns. There is variety in the heights and widths of the columns in this area ranging from the small, a few centimetres to a metre in height, to real giants rising from the bottom at 15-18m to within 2-3m of the surface. The largest examples of these have great girth, and are formed from the amalgamation of several individual columns creating an irregular undulating surface. The process of amalgamation was incomplete in some locations, such that structures resembling 'flying buttresses'' were formed.

The tops of these amalgamated columns are either stump-like with truncated surfaces, or terminate, slightly deeper, in a spectacular cluster of fine spires of differing lengths up to several meters long. The truncated surfaces are thought to represent the limit of growth at any one time. Deeper truncated surfaces may show regrowth. This upper zone was named the 'Cathedral site' by both expeditions as they reminded the onlooker of the Cathedrals at Barcelona and Milan.

In certain places, in all zones, but particularly around the spires of the cathedral site, the ikaite columns have fallen over and frequently the broken lengths lie amongst the remaining spires. Where these fragments lay, they were often seen to heal to the remaining columns, as the spring waters continuing to flow out of the main column cemented them in place with freshly precipitated ikaite. The actively streaming broken stems from which the fragment was derived would themselves heal, but into a bulbous mass many times the diameter of the original column looking like the head of a poppy seed.

The sides of these massive columns, and indeed most of the other columns seen, have varying colours with apparently different forms of calcium carbonate. The hard crust of the columns is formed from a yellow-buff coloured carbonate, presumed to be diagenetic ikaite and the skeletal remains of coralline alga. Growing on this background are commonly, purple lithothamnian algae creating a knobbly calcitic coat. Where columns are cracked, damaged or bored by organisms, fresh, pure white ikaite was seen to grow up the sides of the column in a variety of shapes. Most commonly these ikaite forms are tear-drop or candle flame-like, up to 1m high. In these cases it is believed that the flow of water streaming from the column is affected by Bernoulli drag, causing the flow to lick up the side of the column.

Other examples of side growth forms are like half-bells embedded in the columns, the insides of which display an open honeycomb structure. The observed examples of fresh ikaite, were seen to made up of a matrix of very fine accicular crystals, up to a centimetre in length. The causes of this re-emergence of ikaite form the sides of the older columns is unknown. Suspected possible mechanisms are boring bivalves, or in the case of the larger forms, fractures caused by upending ice or an increase in the internal hydrostatic pressure.

Spring waters and fine bubbles were observed issuing from the fresh ikaite growths on several columns; the mixing of the two fluids, of differing refractive index, causing an oily taint to the water. The gases forming the bubbles, did not appear to be expelled at any pressure and were readily dissolved in the water.

Middle Zone In the middle reaches of Ikka Bund, the second apparent zone, the ikaite was observed growing both directly out of the muddy bottom, but also from the joints in the syenite outcrop on the roche moutonnee. Ikaite was seen to grow in serrated ridges which when they crossed culminated in peaks, seemingly related to a jointing pattern in the syenite. The ikaite columns in this region are typically smaller than that in the 'cathedral site', being usually no more than 3m but occasionally up to 8-10m high. The density of the ikaite is varied, with areas of very infrequent ikaite and areas of relatively dense ikaite growth. Here, in appearance, the columns were more irregular in outline and frequently densely covered in leafy fan-like sea-weed effectively hiding the detail of the column underneath. This gave the impression of the columns being 'dead' with less apparent growth of fresh ikaite.

Some small columns in the mud (30 cm tall by 10 cm across) could be moved in the same manner as the roots of a potted plant. The impression was that the ikaite had formed from water that has found its way through the mud to the surface and precipitation has commenced as this water came into contact with the sea-water. It is suggested that the mechanism by which they become firmly rooted is by the progressive sinking into the mud under their own weight as they grow. It has been alternatively suggested that the above mechanism would be more likely to create a crust of ikaite and the loose columns are 'dead' and merely supported by the mud.

Lower Zone The third zone of ikaite is found towards the seaward limit of the occurrence where the ikaite forms reefs 10--15m across and 5-10m high with shear sides. It is proposed that these reefs be called 'Pauly's Skerries' as opposed to 'atolls' to avoid the confusion with their tropical counterparts. These masses are composed of hard, calcareous material. The whole is largely encrusted in lithothamnian giving an irregular, rugged appearance. Living on and amongst this mass in great numbers are anemones, echinoids, starfish, sea-squirts, brittle stars and many fish - the many organisms of a living reef community.

Around the edges of the skerry, a talus fringe slopes off into the surrounding muddy sea-bed. Within the muddy deposits of the fringe are the rubbly remains of broken reef and column. The skerry appears founded on a syenite roche moutonnee which extends out from under the mass to the east and north. Off the skerry, on the edges of the underlying roche moutonnee, lie small columns growing out of the fringing mud and up the sides of the rock before pointing vertically up into the open water. In other areas off and around the edges of the skerry are found columns in isolation and together in clusters. Notable amongst these are a small version of the many spired 'cathedral' columns, a perfect line of tall columns (up to 5m high) and an area where there is a small forest of finger sized columns.

The top of the skerry almost breaks surface at low spring tides. On the upper surface a 'powdery' ikaite settles amongst the older rock mass as a calcareous whiting - 'powder snow ikaite' named by the Danish expedition. Some impression of the internal form of the skerry is gained from study of its top. The inside is believed to be at least a partly formed porous mass of ikaite, the exterior stabilised by coralline algae. The remains of two echinoids were seen on top of the skerry partially encrusted in fresh ikaite and along the coralline sides, other shelled organisms were seen to have been incorporated into the mass. Processes such as this may well be adding to, and stabilising the structure.

It is suggested that the reason that the top of the skerry almost reaches the surface, whilst the terminated columns in the upper zone only reach to about minus 3m, is due to a gradient of fresh water. The depth of fresh water decreasing away from the main river input at the head of the fjord (see below diagram). This, further points to the control on the height of the columns as being the fresh water layer and not the effect of ice.

The surrounding topography varies along the length of the occurrence and may well account for the differing form of ikaite precipitated. Where the largest columns are found at the top of the fjord, the topography on both sides is at its steepest and highest. In this area hydrostatic pressure is likely also to be at its greatest. Moving down fjord along the occurrence, the topography drops down on both sides, but particularly on the north west side as the major fault zone dissects the ridge. The fault zone has been deeply eroded and contains a stream, draining the ridge side and lowering the water table down to the delta. Across this zone of dropping topography the density and size of the ikaite column is at its lowest despite their being a number of roche moutonnee on the bed of the fjord. Minimum hydrostatic pressure is located at the small delta on the north side of the fjord which emanated from the large fault valley. In the region of the fault zone the skerries could conceivably be formed from a much more disseminated seepage of spring water from the tectonically fractured syenite. This would result in a mass of ikaite precipitation and amalgamation to form the skerries.

The columns are colonised by marine life, apparently making an ideal substrate. There is clear stratification in density and variety of life forms up and down the shafts of the columns presumably related to the changing amounts of penetrative light.

The tops of the columns, particularly the largest columns in the deepest waters, are bare of lithothamniam and other algal forms. They are 'grazed' by echinoids and sea-cucumbers with the occasional anemone and sea-squirt. It is the tips of the columns that show the most fresh ikaite growth possibly accounting for the lack of sessile organic growth.

The presence of echinoids at the tops of most of the columns, again indicates that the columns grow up to a point which always has a sea water covering - echinoids are stenohaline indicators, not being able to exist in either brackish or fresh water.

At greater depth, the biota changes, grading into the Knobbly purple lithothamniam which densely covers most of columns exterior surface. There are again many echinoids, anemones and tube worms. Fresh ikaite is much less abundant restricted to 'candle flame' and the half-bell forms. One possible mode of formation of these ikaite growths could be through the action of boring bivalves, which breach the hard external crust allowing the fluids inside to leak out and precipitate fresh ikaite.

Lateral dissection of a small fallen column (60cm x 15cm) exposed some of the internal characteristics of the columns. The cleaned section revealed an external crust, approximately 1cm thick that was apparently laminated. The outer edge was encrusted with the lithothamnian algae. The internal structure, was a more porous pumice-like texture, with a central pale coloured flame shape structure. The cross section of the column revealed irregular pipes running up through the centre of the column. The pipes and porous nature may represent the path of fluids. A boring bivalve was found in the sawn section, having bored at an angle to the sides to nearly the heart of the column. Whilst the animal is alive it may actively prevent its opening to the water from being sealed by ikaite, but when it dies precipitation of ikaite from this point may well commence.

The maps produced constitute a first attempt to understand the spatial arrangement of the ikaite deposits of Ikka Fjord. The resolution of the GPS/sonar device used was deemed to be within the plotable accuracy of the maps and the dives performed to quantitatively assess the quality of the maps produced by sonar, seem at this stage to reinforce these findings.

The ikaite was apparently growing over springs issuing from the bottom of the fjord. Springs that monopolise joints and fractures within the syenite complex. In areas where there was no obvious outcrop of syenite, ikaite columns were still seen to have been formed, growing out of the muddy bottom. The limit of growth indicated by the truncated columns is believed to be related to the halocline as opposed to erosion by ice.

The ikaite itself appears to be confined by the bedrock geology, forming only within the outcrop of the syenite intrusion beginning soon after delta deposits thin away and ending at the gneiss boundary. Within this occurrence the ikaite is found in three zones which differ in the size and form of the resulting deposit, large columns near the top of the fjord, smaller more isolated columns through the middle of the occurrence and skerry forming ikaite near the lithological boundary/unconformity. Why there should be variation in form is not known but differences in bed form, spring water flow rates and hydrostatic pressure controlled by the nature of the fjords topography is suggested.

Within the individual zones ikaite further displays a great variety of morphological forms. A significant control on form is believed to be, the encrusting marine life, particularly the coralline algae which serve to preserve the columns in stable calcite.

19 December 1995: Independent Newspaper Section Two: 1000 word article plus photo on Science page

[3] BBC 1 TV, Breakfast News, lead-up clips then twice ran a 2 minute piece mainly of underwater expedition video narrated by David Whitehouse, impressions of diving in Ikka Fjord by Chris Jenner.

[5] BBC 1 TV, 1 pm National lunch time news, slightly different 2 minute article as per breakfast news

[8] BBC 1 TV, 6pm National evening News, 2 minute item on the expedition as per lunch time news.

[9] BBC World TV, 3 minute interview with Paul Seaman following a two minute item as per BBC national news

12 + 14 January 1996: 15 minute item to lead the BBC Radio 4, Natural History Programme, interview with Paul Seaman.

18 January 1996: (January Issue) Geographical Magazine 1000 word lead article (3 pages) including maps, colour photos and technical boxes on the expedition.

February/March 1996 issue: YeoValley Gazette, Issue # 16, 500 word article, by C. Jenner

April 1996: The Oxford Oak, (Oxford Brookes Alumni Association Magazine), 500 word item, distributed world-wide to members, (Circulation c.2500), by C. Jenner.

June 1996: Diver Magazine, 1000 word (2 page) article, by J Passmore Article (without pictures) can be found on Diver web page

July 1996: Scuba World magazine, 1500 word (3 page) lead article, by J Passmore / K Brown

An article for Nature Magazine by Bjorn Buchardt from the University of Copenhagen expedition (with contributions from ICGDE) is in preparation. curently under pier review pending publication 1997 ??

31 October 1995: Oxford Brookes Alumni association, 2 hour talk, slides and video evening. by C Jenner Followed by informal discussion with the team members over refreshments. Poster was also displayed

14 November 1995: Presentation to the Officers of the RGS, IC staff members, sponsors and close associates of the expedition. Brief technical account, slides and video with refreshments afterwards. Poster was also displayed, together with a selection of expedition photographs

16/17 December 1995: Poster + Video presented at the British Sedimentological Research Group (BSRG) 1995 Annual Meeting in Durham. Also displayed a series of thinolite pseudomorphs. Presented by K Brown and J Passmore.

19 January 1996: Talk with video + poster by D Shearman to Members of the Natural History Museum at IC K Brown / J Passmore / P Seaman on hand to discuss the expedition [From this presentation, interest was expressed with regards mounting a display on ikaite at the soon to be reopened Geology Museum]

23 January 1996: Lunch time presentation to the De La Beche Club, Imperial College, by P Seaman

03 February 1996: Talk at the Royal Geographical Society Expedition Forum - A lecture based forum of the best RGS sponsored expeditions of the previous year. given by P Seaman. Poster was also displayed, and members were on hand to discuss the expedition

5 April 1996: Talk with video by D Shearman & P Seaman to the staff of The Natural History Museum at the museum.

The expedition wishes to express their gratitude to the following individuals, bodies and organizations for their advice, approval, loan of equipment and financial support.

Cintrex Freight Limited / Arthur Blackmore, Supply of shipping at cost, Supply of packing wrap for return trip.

Danish Polar Centre, Approval of expedition. Permission to conduct the research. Advice given by: Henning Thing, Head of Secretariat at the DPC, Discoverer of the unusual biological system in Ikka Fjord.

Rolf Darvile / Royal Danish Navy, Loan of marine VHF radio, Loan of oxygen equipment, Loan of underwater camera, Loan of underwater sled.

Dr C. H. Emelaus, Mapped Ikka Fjord for Greenland Geological Survey, Advice, maps and photographs given,

Imperial College Exploration Board, Award of financial grant. Loan of camping and expedition equipment, Loan of hand-held radios, Loan of underwater camera, Medical advice and supply of medical equipment, Shipping and student insurance.

The Ivigtut Community, Approval of expedition Assistance in organizing the field logistics, Loan of buoys, line and shots, Loan of generator, Permission to conduct the research. Supply of diving platform, Use of facilities,

Oxford Archaeotechnics Limited / Tony Johnson, Loan of surveying equipment, Use of computing facilities.

Royal Danish Embassy, London Advice given by: Captain Lund RDN - Naval Attaché.

Royal Danish Navy, Grønnedal Permission to conduct the research, Permission to enter Naval Base, Repair of echo sounder transducer, Use of facilities.

Royal Geographical Society, Approval of expedition, Award of financial grant and donation of Rolex watch, Advice on expedition planning.

Professor Douglas Shearman (RSM), For suggesting the project, For approval and acting as a mentor, Donation of a car for sale by the expedition.

Last and by no means least, our families and friends who gave amongst other things, financial and moral support, medical equipment, storage space, and a video camera.

Berthelsen, A. 1962. On the geology of the country around Ivigtut, SW Greenland. Geologische Rundschau, Band 52 pp269-280

Bischoff, J. L., Fitzpatrick, J. A., Rosenbauer, R. J., 1993. The Solubility and stabilisation of Ikaite (CaCO3 6H2O) from 0o to 25o: Environmental and palaeoclimatic implications for thinolite tufa. The Journal of Geology, vol. 101, p. 21-33.

Bischoff, J. L., Stine, S., Rosenbauer, R. J., Fitzpatrick, J. A., Stafford Jr, T. W., 1993. Ikaite precipitation by mixing of shoreline springs and lake water, Mono Lake, California, USA. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. vol. 57, pp. 3855-3856.

Blaxland, A. B., 1976. Rb - Sr isotopic evidence for the age & origin of the Ivigtut Granite & associated Cryolite body; South Greenland. Economic Geology Vol. 71 pp 864-869

Blaxland, A. B., Breemen, O. Van, Emeleus, C. H., Anderson, J. G., 1978. Age & origin of the major syenite centres in the Gardar Province of South Greenland: Rb - Sr Studies. Geological Society of America Bulletin, Vol. 89 pp 231-244.

Breeman, O. van, Upton, B. G. J., 1972. Age of some Gardar Intrusive Complexes, South Greenland. Geological Society of America Bulletin, Vol. 83 pp 3381-3390

Browell, E. J. J. 1860. Description and analysis of an undescribed mineral from Jarrow Slake. Tyneside Naturalists Field Club, V, 103-4

Council, T. C. & Bennett, P. C., 1993. Geochemistry of ikaite formation at Mono Lake, California: Implications for the origin of tufa mounds. Geology Vol. 21, pp 971-974

Emeleus, C. H. 1964. The Grønnedal-Ikka Alkaline Complex, South Greenland: The structure and geological history of the complex. Meddelelser Om Grønland. Bd. 172, No. 3. Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse

Fleischer, M., 1964. New mineral names (short) - Pauly short paper report. The American Mineralogist Vol. 49, March - April p.439

Hesse, K. -F., Kuppers, H., Suess, E., 1983. Refinement of the structure of Ikaite, CaCO3.6H2O. Zeitschrift fur Kristallographie Vol. 163 pp 227-231

Kalsbeek, F., Leake B. E., 1970. The chemistry & origin of some basement amphibolites between Ivigtut and Frederikshab, South-West Greenland. Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse Bull. No. 90

Kennedy, G. L; Hopkins D. M., and Pickthorn W. J. 1987. Ikaite, the glendonite precursor, in estuarine sediments at Barrow, Arctic Alaska. G. S. A. Ann. Mtg. 1987 Abstr. Prog. 9, 725.

Jansen, J. H. F., Woensdregt, C. F., Kooistra, M. J., Gaast, S. J. van der, 1987. Ikaite pseudomorphs in the Zaire deep-sea fan: An intermediate between calcite and porous calcite. Geology Vol. 15 pp 245-248

Johnston, J. D., 1995. Pseudomorphs after ikaite in a glaciomarine sequence in the Dalradian of Donegal, Ireland. Scottish Journal of Geology 31, (1), pp 3-9

McDowell, S. D., Wyllie, P. J., 1970. Experimental studies of igneous rock series: the Kungnat syenite complex of South West Greenland. Jrn. Geol. Vol. 79 pp 173-194

Marland, G. 1975. The stability of CaCO3.6H2O (ikaite). Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. vol. 39, pp. 83-91.

Pauly, H. 1963a. IKAIT - Nyt mineral der danner skaer. Naturens Verden, p. 168 - 192

Paull, C., 1995. Atlantic gas hydrates target of Ocean Drilling Program Leg. Oil & Gas Journal, Oct 16 pp 116-119

Russell, I. C. 1889. Quaternary history of Mono Valley, California. Reprint from the Eighth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, Pages 267-394. Artemisia Press, Lee Vining, California 1984.

Shearman, D. J. and Smith, A. J., 1985. Ikaite, the parent mineral of jarrowite-type pseudomorphs. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association of London, 96 (4) pp 305-314

Shearman, D. J., McGugan, A., Stein, C., Smith, A. J., 1989. Ikaite, CaCO3 6H2O, the precursor of the thinolites in the Quaternary tufas and tufa mounds of the Lahontan and Mono Lake Basins, western United States. Geological Society of America Bulletin, vol. 101 pp 913 - 917,

Spencer, A. M., 1973. Late Precambrian glaciation in Scotland. Mem. geol. soc. Lond., 6, 100p.

Stein and Smith. 1985. Authigenic carbonate nodules in the Nankai Trough, Site 583. initial reports of the DSDP 87, pp 659-668.

Suess, E., Balzer, W., Hesse, K-F., Muller, P. J., Ungerer, C.A., Wefer, G., 1982. Calcium carbonate hexahydrate from organic-rich sediments of the Arctic Shelf: Precursors of glendonites. Science, 1216, 1128-1130.

Upton, B. G. J., Emeleus, C. H., Mid-Proterozoic alkaline magmatism in southern Greenland: the Gardar province. Geological Society Special Publication No. 30 pp 449-471

Valkenburg, A. Van-., Mao, H. K. Bell, P. M. Ikaite (CaCO3 6H2O), A phase more stable than calcite and aragonite (CaCO3) at high water pressure. Geophysical laboratory pp 237-

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Woolley, A. R., 1987. Alkaline rocks and carbonatites of the world: Part 1: North and South America. British Museum (Natural History) London.

Edmonds C, Lowry C & Pennefather J (1992) Diving & subaquatic medicine, 3e. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford.

Flemming N C & Max M D (1990) Scientific diving: a general code of practice. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. France

Jensen B Juel - & Warrell D (1991) Expedition medicine. Expedition Advisory Centre, Royal Geographical Society, London.

Lippmann J & Bugg S (1993) Diving emergency handbook. J. L.. Publications, Melbourne.

Marsden A K, Moffat C & Scott R (1992) First Aid manual - The authorised manual of St. John Ambulance, St. Andrews's Ambulance Association and the British Red Cross - 6e Dorling Kindersley, London

Murphy, G., 1989. Underwater photography: Camera basics equipment care. PADI Underwater Photography Series. PADI, United States

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File, D., 1991 Weather Facts, a complete guide to weather and climate. Oxford University Press, Great Britain

ii) 3-Dimensional DEM of the bathymetry viewed from convenient angles as appropriate.

iii) Distrib. & categorisation of ikaite columns present within Ikka Fjord, together with the locations of the 30 dive sites verifying the data set.

iv) Geological Map of Emeleus, with ikaite distribution map superimposed. (The syenite complex is shaded in purple.)

(Only tetanus is really required, though polio is recommended, but please put down all innocuations. thank-you)

6) IN THE EVENT OF SERIOUS INJURY OR DEATH, DO YOU WANT ANYBODY TO BE CONTACTED AND IF SO WHO?

Budgets
After our initial 'stab in the dark' budget of £28,201 and then our later 'more realistic' budget of £16,920 - as proposed on the majority of our grant applications - the expedition has cost to date £20,420.98. Expenditure is still expected for the production of our final report, (approx. £160), the production of a quality video, and some presentation photographs.

Expected Returns
The expedition either had to, or deemed it advisable - considering the long transit times - to purchase equipment (to sell on later), rather than hire it. To this aim, the expedition is still in possession of a few capital items. Returns are expected not only from the eventual sale of this equipment, but also from various broadcast and published materials. The expedition is also still expecting back a proportion of a deposit on the surveying equipment - unfortunately one tripod was wrecked in our major storm.

Some returns have already been made with respect to equipment and published material. The large difference, between the purchase and the sale price of the boat & engines, came about partly because of damage sustained in the field to the prop, skeg & gear box on the 25HP, that would have incurred a reasonable service and repair bill. However, hidden costs were saved, by this sale (in Greenland), because it meant that lower shipping charges were incurred for the return journey.

A Precautionary Tale
The Rolex watch, (awarded through the RGS), was sold at the end of the expedition. Though the market price of the watch was in the region of £1900, the final price obtained (from Austin Kayes) was £950. This was the highest price that could be found from a reputable dealer. Two attempts at selling it privately (both for the agreed price of £1400), lead to forays up a blind alley - unfortunately in the first case this was almost literally what happened, and the prospective buyer attempted to steal the watch at knife point, unluckily for him, the member fought back and the hapless felon is now spending some time at Her Majesties pleasure!!

Members Contribution
Members contributions in the total expenditure [£20,420.98], originally came to an average of £2300 per capita, as opposed to the £1000 per capita budgeted [in the £16,920]. After all returns have been made, the final per capita contribution is expected to be no less than £1500. These figures do not take into account monies spent at the very beginning of the expedition planning, nor expenditure on personal equipment, for example diving equipment.

IMPERIAL COLLEGE
GREENLAND DIVING EXPEDITION 1995

A STUDY OF THE TYPE LOCALITY OF THE MINERAL IKAITE
(FIELD DATES: 7 JULY TO 23 AUGUST 1995)

(Ikka Fjord: located near Ivigtut, in S.W. Greenland - 61.00.12N, 48.00.00 W)

Winner: November 1996
Duke of Edinburghs Prize for the British Sub-Aqua Club

DEDICATION

REPORT CONTENTS

IMPERIAL COLLEGEGREENLAND DIVING EXPEDITION 1995

A STUDY OF THE TYPE LOCALITY OF THE MINERAL IKAITE(FIELD DATES: 7 JULY TO 23 AUGUST 1995)

(Ikka Fjord: located near Ivigtut, in S.W. Greenland - 61.00.12N, 48.00.00 W)

Winner: November 1996 Duke of Edinburghs Prize for the British Sub-Aqua Club

DEDICATION

REPORT CONTENTS

IMPERIAL COLLEGE
GREENLAND DIVING EXPEDITION 1995

A STUDY OF THE TYPE LOCALITY OF THE MINERAL IKAITE
(FIELD DATES: 7 JULY TO 23 AUGUST 1995)

Winner: November 1996
Duke of Edinburghs Prize for the British Sub-Aqua Club