CHAPTER TWO

RED WORLD

Among the earliest narration handed down from the Indians, there is a parable that serves to illuminate the vast cultural gulf that separated them from the Europeans. It begins at the time of Creation when the white man was given a stone and the red man was handed a piece of silver, despising the stone the white man threw it away, while the red man finding the silver equally worthless likewise discarded his piece. Later the white man pocketed the silver as a source of material power while the red man revered the stone as a source of scared power. This theme colors Indian and White relations to this day with but few exceptions.

When Christopher Columbus set foot in the Bahamas, in 1492, North America already held a population estimated by some to have be between seven to ten million people. These Native Americans developed several hundred distinct cultures and spoke over two hundred separate languages. The hunting bands, tribes, nations and confederacies were as different and distinct from each other as the nations of the Old World. In the Midwest, their territories were covered with 'traces' (networks of narrow moccasin-worn paths) and these trails were followed by hunters and tribes for uncounted generations.

At first the Atlantic Coast nations were hospitable to the early settlers, who in turn dubbed the chiefs as kings and their wives, sons and daughters as queen, princes and princesses. It was an acknowledged Indian courtesy to extend hospitality to all non-Indian passers-by. They never bothered to inquire whether their guests were misfits or whatever. There were no customs that prevented intermarriage which frequently resulted in 'half-breed' offspring. 'Squaw men', slang for white men who had an Indian wife, were always assured acceptance among the tribe when shunned by 'civilized' white society. If the half-breed offspring were ostracized from white settlements, they always found Indian homes. Growing up in a bilingual and bicultural atmosphere made them well suited to fill the role of frontier interpreters and traders.

It is almost impossible to conceive two more diverse ways of life and systems of belief than those represented by Indian and European societies. The enormous differences in religious values and practices, the conduct of family and social life, concepts of property ownership and land use, and the traditional attitudes toward leisure and work made interchanges between Indian and whites anything but smooth.

During the 1500's and 1600's, timber and fur-bearing animals were becoming scarce natural resources in the Old World; Europeans started looking to the New World for replacements. Jacques Cartier(1534) and Henry Hudson(1609) were business agents looking for new markets. Later everyone started competing with the Indians for exclusive trading privileges, bribing the Redman with liquor, trinkets and guns.

Jean Nicollet meets the Sea People

Hoping to find the route to Asia in the course of a long voyage which took him to Lake Superior, Jean Nicollet made a point of bringing with him "a great robe of Chinese damask, all dotted with flowers & birds of various colours". W. W. Dewing, State Historical Society of Wisconsin; Aldus Books, London. (Taken from Nos Racines)

It was in the area of collecting furs that native expertise and manpower were essential; for the Indians possessed the skills and methods for trapping, skinning and soft-tanning hides. Indian nations were encouraged to abandon inter-tribal trading and devote their energies to hunting animals for the insatiable fur markets of Europe. The Redman then began receiving a wide range of new goods in return for his services; such as knives, hatchets, scissors, woolen cloth, brandy(from the French), 'demon rum'(from the English), muskets, powder and shot. By the mid-1600's, these items and others became an indispensable part of the Woodland Indian lifestyle.

The French did business via the rivers, while the British traded by muleback. Toward the end of the 1700's the individual peddler-trader would be replaced by companies that operated from a string of frontier trading posts. The Indians would haul their prime winter pelts to these outposts in the spring or barter with company agents travelling among them while on the move. This one factor was primarily responsible for the vast transformation of changing patterns of Indian life that had been virtually unchanged for centuries.

Wherever it was they had migrated from the east, the Fox and Sac had lived in southeast Michigan for many years before the French came to the Great Lakes, and what had once been a peaceful region was disrupted by their fur trade. The French reached the Huron villages at the south end of Lake Huron in 1615. After the long and dangerous journey from Quebec, few of them were willing to go farther, and beyond this point, most of the fur trade was conducted by the Ottawa and Huron.

To reach this far into the interior, the French had been forced in 1609 to win the trust of the Algonquin and Montagnais by helping them drive the Mohawk from the upper St. Lawrence River. Unfortunately, this also earned the French the lasting hostility of the Iroquois, and to avoid their war parties, French traders were forced to detour up the Ottawa River to reach the Huron. This precaution proved adequate enough until after the British captured Quebec in 1629 preventing French trade goods from reaching their native allies and trading partners.

In 1610 the Iroquois had started trade with the Dutch along the Hudson and, after defeating the Mahican in 1628, dominated this trade. Taking advantage of the interruption of French trade by the British, the Mohawk attacked the Algonquin and Montagnais in 1629 to reclaim the upper St. Lawrence. The next 70 years of continuous intertribal warfare which followed are known as the Beaver Wars (1628-1700). By the time Quebec was returned to the French in 1632, their native allies were retreating, and the Iroquois were threatening to cut the trade route to the Great Lakes. To restore the former balance of power, the French began supplying firearms to their allies, but the Dutch quickly countered by selling guns to the Iroquois.

Meanwhile, the fur trade had exhausted the beaver in the Huron homeland as well as those of their Ottawa, Neutrals, and Tionontati trading partners. Needing new hunting territory, they found this in lower Michigan and, using the firearms and steel weapons acquired from the French, attacked the Algonquin-speaking tribes who lived there.

The French were aware of this but, with the exception of Jean Nicollet's journey to Green Bay (Wisconsin) to arrange peace between the Winnebago and the Ottawa and Huron in 1634, little was done to stop it. Exactly what happened is uncertain, since only a few scattered reports were relayed to the French by the Huron. Besides the Fox and Sac, three other Algonquin tribes occupied lower Michigan at the time: Mascouten, Potawatomi, and Kickapoo.

Unfortunately, the Huron made little distinction between them and, perhaps borrowing the Ottawa name for the Potawatomi, usually referred to them collectively as the Assistaeronon (Fire Nation). Located in southeast Michigan, the Fox took the brunt of the early fighting. They defended themselves well in the initial confrontations. In 1635 the French learned that the Erie had abandoned some of their villages at the west end of Lake Erie because of a war with an unknown Algonquin enemy.

This "unknown Algonquin enemy" was most likely either the Fox or Kickapoo, but during the next decade, the obvious advantage of European steel and firearms over traditional weapons took its toll. Constant raids by large combined war parties of Neutrals, Nipissing, Ottawa, Huron, and Tionontati began dislodging the resident tribes. The Potawatomi were the first to leave, with the first groups arriving north of Green Bay in 1641, but the very hostile reception they received from the Winnebago forced them north to seek refuge with the Ojibwe near Sault Ste. Marie.

Radisson and Des Groseilliers

Pierre Esprit Radisson and Médard Chouart Des Groseilliers are heroes of mythical proportions in the history of the fur trade in New France. In their lifetimes, both had their shares of disgrace and glory. They are represented here at the entrance of Fort Charles (Fort Rupert), the first trading post established by the Hudson Bay Company. These two Frenchmen were instrumental in creating and implementing this English company on the shores of Hudson Bay. Source: H.B.C. Collection

The Fox and Sac withstood the assaults a little longer, but during 1642, 2,000 Neutral and Ottawa warriors destroyed a large fortified Mascouten village in south-central Michigan, and resistance began to collapse. The Fox, Kickapoo, and Mascouten retreated west around the southern end of Lake Michigan where the Kickapoo and Mascouten finally stopped in southwest Wisconsin. The Sac apparently went north and crossed in the vicinity of Mackinac to settle on the upper Wisconsin River west of Green Bay.

After some confrontations with the Illinois, the Fox located along the Fox River between the Wisconsin River and Lake Winnebago. The reception they received from the Winnebago was just as friendly as the one given the Potawatomi a few years earlier, but this time fortune dealt harshly with the resident tribe. The Winnebago organized a large war party to attack a Fox village on Lake Winnebago, but while enroute in their canoes, it was caught on the lake by a storm and more than 500 of their warriors were drowned. Seriously weakened by this setback, the Winnebago collected into a single large village for defense, ideal conditions for the devastating epidemic which struck them. Without raising a hand against them, the Fox had the Winnebago who survived trapped inside their fort unable to harvest their corn and starving.

At this point, the Illinois, traditional enemies of the Winnebago, saw an opportunity for an alliance to fight the flood of refugees descending on them from Michigan and sent 500 warriors with food to help their old enemies. The Winnebago held a feast to honor them, but unfortunately old hatreds and distrust prevailed. In the midst of the celebration, the Winnebago turned on their guests and killed all of them. When the Illinois learned what had happened to their warriors, they began a war of extermination which almost destroyed the Winnebago. The Fox and other Michigan refugees afterwards encountered little resistance to their relocation in Wisconsin. Ultimately, almost 5,000 Fox settled in central Wisconsin and became one of the most powerful tribes in the area.

Tribes battled one another for rich trapping grounds as commercial trading agreements between white and Indians started springing up. Like the special trading agreement that had existed between the French and Huron. This exclusive treaty so angered the Iroquoian Confederacy that they later joined forces with the Dutch and English, who in turn supplied them with firearms. The alliance contributed to the English victory in the French and Indian War and also allowed the Iroquois to ruthlessly dominate the fur trade in the northeastern part of the North American continent.

The major stumbling block between the two cultures was their opposite attitudes toward the land. Europeans on arriving in North America, cleared forests and cultivated the ground, hunted game in massive quantities, mined the land looking for gold or silver and began peopling villages and towns patterned after their homelands. The Indians always considered themselves as 'custodians' rather than 'engineers' of the land.

Europeans tended to measure the earth, like a commercial commodity, fencing it off, tilling or building upon it with an abandon that horrified the Redman. At the same time the colonists, whose culture was based on private ownership and personal riches, looked with disdain at the Indian's custom of sharing the land in common. The European land-ownership concept was so alien to the Indians' way of thought that it was incomprehensible to them. Each Indian Nation knew the boundaries of their cornfields and hunting territories. These boundaries were not fences around jealously-held private lands.

At first these diverse concepts presented no difficulty when colonial presence was limited. Moments of peaceful co-existence were possible as the early pioneers took up squatting and hunting privileges in the Redman's territory; especially when tribal and colonial interests overlapped--as with matters of trade. When the white populations grew, friction developed between the two worlds. Tribes were trying to live off the lands the settlers now coveted. As game thinned, the white settlements pushed the Indians ever further westward. Whatever balance that existed before between the two diverse cultures was now shattered by racial prejudice and religious intolerance.

When the rebellious colonies--the 'thirteen fires'--won their independence from Britain, the United States entered this commercial war. Thanks to the Indian, the natural resources of the North American continent enriched European and American lives and pocketbooks. In the Midwest the toll on the Redman was high as inter-tribal trading and commerce were shattered by the intense focus on one commodity--furs. With the animals over-hunted and disappearing, the Indians' prosperity was dissolving, like the morning dew under the sun.

Combined with unscrupulous traders that plied the Redman with watered down liquor, dealing in shoddy mass-produced goods, inflated markups on the now indispensable survival items--all this and much more contributed to the Indians' rapid decline.

The main justification the settlers used for usurping tribal homelands was the concept of 'right of discovery'. This concept was born in the early 1500's by Spain and later used by the early explorers in claiming vast tract or territories in the name of the monarch or commercial interest who had paid for their ventures. The United States Supreme Court upheld this concept in 1823 and, of course, where the 'right of discovery' would not suffice, the use of conquest or armed takeover would.

Indian nations were being torn asunder internally by the deteriorating relations between themselves and the whites. There were the 'breeches'(pants-wearing) Indians who adopted white ways and the 'blankets'(traditional) Indians staying loyal to the old way of life. Despite the forces brought to play to make the Redman choose sides between the European powers and America, the Indian never once considered himself as a conquered race; later yes, but not in the beginning. They had always managed to retain a vision of an independent identity.

With the emergence of a new nation, the United States, a ruthless Indian policy was implemented: removal, enclosure or extermination of the 'red devils'. The frontier pressure pushed the tribes closer together and ever farther inland. The friction generated a wildfire of tribal wars; the white world encouraged and abetted these divisions between the Indian tribes and within the tribal structures. Old World wars were mirrored in North America, during 1776 and 1812, as the sovereign powers enlisted Indian allies of either side, pitting tribe against tribe—thus division and conquest were simultaneously accomplished.

Over the decades since 1492, a theme is repeated over and over again; the reasoned plea to the whites to recognize the Indian to be themselves. The English in the mid-1700's attempted to respect and establish peaceful co-existence between themselves and the Redman by setting aside living space for friendly tribes. These early prototype reservations did not solve the problem and finally, in 1763, the British drew up a proclamation calling for a boundary line between 'civilization' and 'Indian Territory'--which was defined as any lands beyond the heads or sources of any rivers which run into the Atlantic Ocean from the west or northwest. Yet, even this separate-but-equal scheme failed.

As tribe was pushed into tribe with the spread of the western frontier expansion, some Indian nations were ultimately exterminated; others merged with stronger tribes for protection; and still others managed to retain their identities somewhat intact to the present.

As the early Americans came to believe that it was God's Will for them to spread from sea to shining sea--the concept of Manifest Destiny was born. During the 1800's, the tribes gathered around the trading posts in the spring to barter their prime pelts for goods. It was at these same posts that they would later meet governmental representatives of the United States to discuss terms of surrender and treaties of peace. By this time the only thing the Indians held that

interested the whites was their land, and this was often acquired without fair means of exchange or recourse. Now, peaceful co-existence was a dead dream and the only path the Redman could follow was as a fugitive of a conquered nation.

The Indian's capacity for self-survival cannot be underestimated. As the expansion of the frontier took place, only the Indian sought to preserve their art, poetry, religion, myths and other artistic mediums. The white world took notice only to decry it as being pagan and primitive. When the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs was created to urge the Redman to adopt new ways by taking up new faiths and skills, Indian nations, on the whole, passively resisted further erosion of their values.

Time passed and much Indian knowledge and art was fading away forever. Then, for the first time, the universities of the East, during the 1830's, took notice of the vanishing traditions and gave recognition to the Redman as a people and as men. This was also the era of the Grimm Brothers, of Hans Christian Anderson and others who went about assembling folklore collections of the Old World. The scholars on the Atlantic Seaboard were quick to grasp the possibility of New World parallels for similar collections.

A new science, anthropology, was conceived from geology by philosophy and embraced the physical and metaphysical aspect of man. What is known of the Sac and Fox traditions, social organization, art and myths is fragmentary at best. It was because of men like Henry Schoolcraft, George Catlin and Washington Irving who recorded the Indian's customs and myths by their words and drawings. It was from such men as these that present-day scholars are indebted.

"RECORD !" became the rallying cry of those who followed in their footsteps, fast on the trail of vanishing Native American folklore. An analysis of all research will almost convince you that myths and legends are repeated from tribe to tribe and changes with the local ecology.

There has been added to this chapter three myths: one derived from the Sac and Fox after they confederated into one tribe, one drawn exclusively from the Sacs and the other one from the Foxes. I have presented them as they appeared in the original text, as tales, beautiful in themselves and in their relationship to the lives of the original tellers.

L E G E N D S & M Y T H S

The mythological world of the Sac and Fox was divided by fours: the four seasons, the four divisions of the day or life and, of course, the four world corners--the cardinal directions(north, south, east and west). There were five basic type-characters augmenting the myths and legends and they are: (1)the HERO, (2)the TRICKSTER, (3)the HERO-TRICKSTER(possessed traits found in the other two), (4)the GRANDMOTHER SPIDER, and lastly her grandsons, (5)the TWIN WAR ENTITIES.

The HERO stands for wisdom, strength and perception of men. He is the intermediary between Nanabozho(God) and mankind, often stepping between nature and man. In this character, he is found protecting the weak and sending visions to youth.

The TRICKSTER is incorporated to explain natural phenomena, especially used to infer an occurrence from which a moral can be drawn. This character is a cross between Eros and Pan in Greek literature.

The TRICKSTER-HERO closely resembles the Prometheus concept in our mythology; sometimes doing good intentionally and other times by accident. In the 'trickster' mode he is capable of mischief and chaos. Found in the 'hero' mode, he can defeat death or bring gifts to the people.

The GRANDMOTHER SPIDER has it's analogue in Eve. Ancient to begin with, she is capable of becoming young and beautiful when it suits her purpose, usually living in solitude or with her grandsons between adventures. She directs men's thought and destinies by her kindness.

The TWIN WAR ENTITIES are the hardest to pin down and define but through them we can perceive the duality basic to all men. One is good the other evil and both are the personification of action--not contemplation; virgin-born and of supernatural lineage, but basically human--therein lies their appeal and puzzle.

R E L I G I O N

At the core of the Sac and Fox beliefs lies the complex spirit concept: the Creator(Nanabozho) --One and the All-in-All. Within his guidance other supernatural beings exist--all of them great but none of them all-powerful.

In the confederated tribes' traditions they have an account referring to the creation of the world, the deluge, and the re-peopling of the earth and follows: Doctor Galland's, "CHRONICALS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN SAVAGES", entitled 'The Cosmogony of the Saukee and Musquakee Indians' the footnotes have been kept as in the original.

" In the beginning the Gods created every living thing which was intended to have life upon the face of the whole earth; and then formed every species of living animal. After this the Gods also formed man, whom they perceived to be both cruel and foolish. They then put into man the heart of the best beast they had created; but they beheld that man still continued to be cruel and foolish. After this it came to pass that Nanabozho took a piece of Himself, of which he made a heart for the man; and when the man received it, he immediately became wise above every other animal on the earth.

And it came to pass in the process of much time, that the earth produced it's first fruits in abundance and all the living beasts were greatly multiplied. The earth about this time was also inhabited by an innumerable host of I-am-woi (giants) and gods. And the gods whose habitation is under the seas, made war upon We-suk-kah (the chief god upon the Earth) and leagued themselves with the I-am-woi upon the earth against him.

Nevertheless, they were still afraid of We-suk-kah and his immense host of gods; therefore they called a council upon the earth. At the council, both the I-am-woi and the gods from under the seas, after much debate and long consultation, they resolved to make a great feast upon the earth and to invite We-suk-kah, that they might beguile him, and at the feast lay hands upon him and slay him.

And when the council had appointed a delegate to visit We-suk-kah, they commanded him to invite We-suk-kah to the great feast; which they were preparing upon the earth for him. Behold, the younger brother of We-suk-kah was in the midst of the council, and being confused in the whole assembly, they said unto him, 'Where is thy brother, We-suk-kah?' And he answering said unto them, 'I know not; am I my brother's keeper?' And the council perceiving that all their devices were known to him, they were sorely vexed. Therefore, with one accord the whole assembly rushed violently upon him; and thus was slain the younger brother of We-suk-kah.

Now when We-suk-kah had heard of the death of his younger brother, he was extremely sorrowful and wept aloud, and the gods whose habitations were above the clouds heard the voice of his lamentations. They leagued with him to avenge the blood of his brother. At this time the lower gods fled from the face of the earth, to their own habitations under the seas. The I-am-woi were thus forsaken and left alone to defend themselves against We-suk-kah and his allies.

Now the scene of battle, where We-suk-kah and his allies fought the I-am-woi, was in a flame of fire; and the whole race of the I-am-woi were destroyed with great slaughter, that there was not one left upon the face of the whole earth. When the gods under the sea knew of the dreadful fate of their ally, the I-am-woi, whom they had deserted, they were sore afraid and they cried aloud to Na-nam-a-keh (god of thunder) to come to their assistance. And Na-nam-a-keh heard their cry and accepted their request and sent his subaltern, No-tah-tes-se-ah (god of the wind) to Pa-poan-a-tesse-ah (god of the cold) to invite him to come with all his dreadful host of frost, snow, hail, ice and the northwind to their relief.

When this destroying army came from the north, they smote the whole earth with frost, converting the waters of every river, lake and sea into solid mass of ice, and covering the whole earth with an immense sheet of snow and hail. Thus perished all the inhabitants of the earth: men, beasts, and gods except a few choice ones of each kind, which We-suk-kah preserved with himself upon the earth.

And again it came to pass in the process of a long time, that the gods under the sea came forth again, upon the earth. When they saw We-suk-kah, that he was almost alone on the earth they rejoiced in assurance of being able to destroy him. But when they had exhausted every scheme, attempted every plan and executed every effort to no effect, perceiving that all their councils and designs were well known to We-suk-kah as soon as they were formed; they became mad with despair. They resolved to destroy We-suk-kah by spoiling forever the face of the earth, which they so much desired to inhabit. To this end, therefore, they retired to their former habitations under the sea and entreated Na-nam-a-keh to drown the whole earth with a flood.

And Na-nam-a-keh again hearkened to their cries, and calling all the clouds to gather themselves together, they obeyed his voice and came; and when all the clouds were assembled he commanded them and they poured down water upon the earth. A tremendous torrent of rain fell until the whole surface of the earth, even the tops of the highest mountains were covered with water. But it came to pass, when We-suk-kah saw the water coming upon the earth, he took to the air, and made an o-pes-quie (vessel) and getting into it himself, he took with him all sorts of living beasts, and man; and when the waters rose upon the earth the o-pes-quie was lifted up and floated upon the surface, until the tops of the highest mountains were covered with the flood. And when the o-pes-quie had remained for a long time upon the surface of the flood, We-suk-kah called one of the animals, which was with him in the o-pes-quie and commanded it to go down through the water to the earth, to bring from thence some earth. After great efforts and with much difficulties the animal at length returned, bringing in its mouth some earth. Of which when We-suk-kah had received it, he formed this earth and spread it forth upon the surface of the water; and went forth himself and all that were with him in the o-pes-quie, and occupied the dry land."

The Sun became their father and the Earth their mother in the Redman's religion. Contact with the earth and exposure to the sun brought strength and blessings. Winds, rain, clouds, thunder, etc… are a means of communication to the tribe. The importance of moon and stars are present and all nature is regarded as being endowed with protective powers.

The Sac and Fox held strongly to the belief that aid from benevolent spirits could be obtained through fasting, suffering and prayer. 'Power' was defined as the animating force of the cosmos and comes from Nanabozho(God, Creator) and there is no English analogue adequate to describe what this Indian Nation meant to convey when using this term.

The confederated tribe had no formulated or precise concept of the afterlife. Their expression used to refer to one who had died was 'he went'. Their belief in the soul was strong and the ghost world was said to be in the West, beyond the setting sun, and it was here the souls go after death.

A belief existed in both tribes, that when a person died the soul immediately left the body. The dead member's family, within four years, had to adopt another person of the same sex and age as the deceased as a replacement. From this time on, the adopted member was treated as kinship, exactly the way his/her dead counter-part would have been.

The concept of Heaven was vague but there are clear references made concerning unhappy souls--dissatisfied or evil persons--returning to earth to wander, usually in the form of owls. An owl represented a messenger of the dead and was considered as an ill omen to both of these tribes.

The following myth, derived from the Sac tribe, concerns the owl and it's role in their myths. Without exception the owl is a bird of ill omen to every major North American tribe. It is usually cast as the harbinger of death or the bearer of a message from the dead. The Sac believed that an owl could cause facial paralysis if glimpsed at night.

The owl fulfills it's threefold function in the following story. It warns, it demands and it punishes in the following tale told to Carol K. Rachlin by Bertha Manitowa Dowd of the Sac Tribe.

" Nina and Joe lived about a mile from Joe's fathers. The two houses had been built about the same time, and Joe worked both allotments, for his father was too old to do much physical labor.

There was a lot of visiting back and forth. The old man lived alone, so Joe's children went over to see their grandfather almost every day. In the evening, when the work was finished, Joe and Nina would go to the old man's house, usually taking some food with them. He could cook, but he didn't like to, so Nina saw to it that there was something in the house he could heat up the following day.

Joe and Nina never stayed out late because they didn't want the children to be in the house too long at a time. One evening, as they were walking up the lane, they heard a cry overhead, and an owl swooped past them diving through the trees in the direction of Joe's fathers house.

'Something bad will happen!' Nina cried, drawing her shawl over her head.

'Maybe not,' Joe shakily reassured her. 'Maybe it will be all right.'

'He went to your father's place! Something bad will happen to him!' sail Nina. 'Do you want to go back and see?'

'No, we'll go first thing in the morning.'

When they got over there the next day, the old man seemed to be alright at first. He was sitting in his chair by the table, with a cup of coffee in front of him. When he tried to lift the cup to his lips, through, he could not control his hands and when he tried to stand up he could not move from his chair.

Nina hurried to the next room. 'He wants water,' she announced when she returned. She picked up a cup and a spoon from the table. 'Come with me,' she ordered her husband, and Joe obediently followed his wife into the next room. He stood by his father's bedside while she let one drop of water at a time drip into the old man's mouth. He swallowed it, little by little, and when he was satisfied, Nina set down the cup and spoon on the chair.

'He needs water,' she said. 'We've got to keep giving him water.' Day and night, for four days, she stayed with her father-in-law and whenever that choked owl's cry came, Nina dripped water into the old man's mouth. Joe came and went, for farm work waits for neither life or death, but at the end of the fourth day he could see that his wife was worn out.

'Go on home,' he instructed her that evening. 'Get some rest. I'll stay with him during the night."

'Are you sure you can take care of him?' asked Nina.

'Sure I'm sure, I've watched you give him water about a hundred times, I bet,' said Joe.

"All right,' Nina said reluctantly. 'I'll go home now, and be back in the morning.' She wrapped her shawl around her and set out. Somewhere in the grove of trees behind the house she thought she heard an owl call, but she covered her ears in order not to hear it.

It was not quite sunrise when Nina left her home to go back to her husband and his father. She had not slept well, probably because she was too tired. When she came in, the old man was choking and strangling and Joe was holding him up. Before she could reach them, her father-in-law straightened and died.

'I tried to give him water the way you did,' Joe exclaimed. 'I did the best I knew how. Sometimes I thought he swallowed it, and then I'd find it spilled all over the pillow.'

'Never mind now,' Nina reassured him. 'We have to get word to his family. He belongs to them, now. You belong to his clan(gen) and you have to tell them.'

That night the relatives sat up with the body. It sounded as if all the owls in the country were in the grove, talking and arguing. Nobody dared go outside until it was broad daylight and the owls were still.

When the funeral and the funeral feast were over, Joe and Nina went home. They sent the children, who had been with them all day to bed, and presently they dropped down themselves, too tired to sit up.

Then the owl--just one owl--called outside the bedroom window. 'He still wants water,' Nina said. 'Joe! Get up! Give him a glass of water.'

But Joe mumbled sleepily, and when she prodded him again he shook his head in refusal. 'He's dead, isn't he?' he exclaimed. 'How can he want a glass of water now?'

'He came back for a drink,' Nina insisted. 'If you don't give it to him, something bad will happen."

It became a point of argument between them; one of those meaningless disputes that arise because people are over tired and go on resisting each other as if they were fighting the whole world. On the forth night, Nina could stand it no longer. She herself got up out of bed and set a glass of water on the back porch. The owl was still.

After breakfast, Joe got up and stretched. 'I'll hitch up the wagon and get in a load of firewood,' he said. 'We've almost used up what we had, what with that feast, and my not having time to go and get more.'

'All right,' Nina agreed. She herself felt more tired than ever, drained and exhausted as she had not been before. The children had gone off to school and she forced herself up from the table and began to gather the dishes and pile them by the sink. The window by the sink overlooked the yard and she watched Joe throw the harness over the horses' backs and lead them up to the wagon shafts. The horses hadn't been worked all those days and were frisky. Joe got them harnessed and was just swinging himself into the wagon seat when the owl swooped across the yard.

The horses spooked. Joe was thrown between the shafts of the wagon and by the time the horses were stopped by the yard fence and Nina reached him, he was hanging limply upside down by his broken leg, unconscious.

'I told you,' Nina muttered over and over as she worked to free him. 'I told you. I said something bad would happen if you didn't set out the glass of water' "

B U R I A L C U S T O M S

The Sac and Fox practiced four different burial customs: (1) the corpse was laid away in the branches of a tree or upon a scaffold, (2) it was placed in a sitting posture, with the back supported, out on the open ground, (3) it was seated in a shallow grave with all but the face buried and a shelter was placed over the grave, (4) there was complete burial in the ground. To show and express grief for the dead, they blackened their faces with charcoal, fasted and abstained from the use of vermilion and ornaments in dress.

D R E S S

A Sac warrior's appearance would be of a well developed body attired in breechcloth and beaded moccasins. His scalp lock would be treated in vermilion and yellow; the face would be streaked in blue, yellow and red; occasionally a string of bear claws around the neck and beaded ear bobs enhanced the individual's appearance.

A Fox warrior's appearance might consist of a headress of dyed-red horsehair tied in such a manner to the scalp lock as to present the shape of a Roman helmet. The rest of the head would be clean shaven and painted. Breechcloths, moccasins and leggings were standard attire while the rest of the upper part of their bodies would be painted, marked the warrior's appearance. The paintings on the chest, shoulders and back often included the print of a hand in white clay.

S T A R L O R E

As a people who lived close to the earth the Musquakie (Fox) were aware of weather, seasons and the stars. For every productive activity was and still is controlled to some extent by nature and these people recognized this fact.

Today much of the Sac and Fox star lore has been lost for several reasons. First, the timing of ceremonies was dependent on secret knowledge, revealed only by shamans, their religious leaders, handed down only to those who were to succeed them. Secondly, the constellations known to these tribes did not have European counterparts. Thirdly, the white recorders who transcribed the data were unfamiliar with the astronomy knowledge of their own culture.

Saukie Warrior, His Wife, and a Boy

In the following fragment of a larger myth which has been lost, a Fox explains the story of the constellation known to us today as the Great Bear. The formalized opening; "They say that, a long time ago…' indicates the story does not come from the teller's personal time-frame. The formalized ending also indicates that this is a recounting of a part of a greater myth, rather than in telling a 'little story'.

The source of the following myth is derived from the linguistic text recorded by William Jones and translated by Truman Michelson.

" They say that once, a long time ago, it was early winter. It had snowed the night before and the first snow still lay fresh on the ground. Three young men went out to hunt at the first light, early in the morning. One of them took his little dog, named Hold Tight, with him.

They went along the river and up into the woods coming to a place on the side of a hill where the shrubs and bushes grew low and thick. Here, winding among the bushes, the hunters found a trail and they followed it. The path led them to a cave in the hillside. They had found a bear's den.

'Which of us shall go in and drive the bear out?' the hunters asked each other.

At last the oldest said, 'I will go.'

The oldest hunter crawled into the bear's den and with his bow he poked the bear to drive him out. 'He's coming ! He's coming !' the hunter in the cave called out to his companions. The bear broke away from his tormentor and out of the cave. The hunters followed him.

'Look !' the youngest hunter cried. 'See how fast he's going ! Away to the north, the place from whence comes the cold, that's where he's going !' The hunter ran away to the north, to turn the bear and drive him back to the others.

'Look out !' shouted the middle hunter. 'Here he comes ! He's going to the east, to the place where midday comes from.' And away he ran to the east, to turn the bear and drive him back to the others.

'I see him !' cried the oldest hunter. 'He's going to the west, to the place where the sun falls down. Hurry, brothers ! That's the way he's going…' he and his little dog ran as fast as they could to the west, to turn back the bear.

As the hunters ran after the bear, the oldest one looked down. 'Oh,' he shouted. 'There is Grandmother Earth below us. He's leading us into the sky ! Brothers let us turn back before it's too late.'

But it was already too late. The sky bear had led them too high. At last the hunters caught up with the bear and killed him. The men piled up maple and sumac branches and on the pile of boughs they butchered the bear. That is why those trees turn blood-red in the fall.

Then the hunters stood up. All together they lifted the bear's head, and threw it away in the east. Now in the early morning of winter, a group of stars in the shape of the bear's head will appear low on the horizon in the east just before daybreak.

Next, the hunters threw the bear's backbone away to the north. At midnight, in the middle of winter, if you look north you will see the bear's backbone there, outlined in the stars.

At any time of the year, if you look at the night sky, you can see four bright stars in a square, and behind them three bright stars and one tiny dim one. The square is the bear, the three running behind him are the hunters, and the little one that you can barely see is the little dog named Hold Tight.

Those eight stars move around and around the night sky together all year long. They never go in to rest, like some of the other stars. For until the hunters catch up with the bear, they and their little dog can never rest.

That is the end of that story. "

G O V E R N M E N T

The Fox and the Sac were so closely associated that these two distinct tribes are usually considered to have been a single tribe. Although joined in very close alliance after 1734, the Fox and the Sac maintained separate traditions and chiefs. This was very apparent when Fox and Sac chiefs at the insistence of the United States were forced to sign the same treaty. However, the signatures always appear in distinct two groupings, one for the Fox and the other for the Sac. Both tribes have been described as extremely individualistic and warlike. Both the Fox and the Sac had a strong sense of tribal identity and were never reluctant to chose their own path. The French found both tribes independent and very difficult to control.

Descent was traced through their patrilineal clans: Bear, Beaver, Deer, Fish, Fox, Ocean, Potato, Snow, Thunder, and Wolf. Politically, the Fox and Sac had more central organization than with other Algonquin tribes which probably was a reflection of the many wars they had fought. The tribal councils of their chiefs wielded considerable authority.

Noted for their fighting ability and efficient political administration, the Sac were widely respected throughout the Mississippi, Rock and Illinois River watersheds.

The Fox, though not enjoying the same prestige as the Sac, were descended from the same Algonquin stock. Besides being more warlike, the Fox were also stingy, avaricious and passionate. Their bravery, however, was proverbial while their exposure to whites had produced improvidence and addiction to liquor; because of these shortcomings they were content in following the political lead of the Sac.

It should be noted that the Fox were the only Algonquin tribe to fight a war with the French(actually, two wars). The French enjoyed good relations with every other Algonquin tribe in the Great Lakes(including the Sac), but the Fox were antagonistic from the moment of their first meeting with the French. It seems likely that the Fox had taken the brunt of the fighting in Michigan with French trading partners during the 1630s and 40s and were well-aware where the steel weapons used against them had come from. (Some of the famous Sac chiefs were Keokuk and Black Hawk. Keokuk has an Iowa city named after him and is the only Native American ever honored with a bronze bust in the U.S. Capitol. His likeness has also appeared on American currency. The famous Olympian, Jim Thorpe (Wathohuck or Bright Star) was a Sac/Potawatomi).

Early in the 1700's, a reprisal by the Ojibwa, backed by the French, drove the Fox to forge a close confederation with the Sac. This would mark both tribes as one nation until the 1850's. The incident creating this close confederation came about in this manner.

The Fox had harassed French traders causing the French to incite the Ojibwe against the Fox. During the ensuing warfare the Fox sought refuge among the Sac. Though the Sac Nation were friendly with the French, they gave sanctuary to the Fox, refusing to surrender them. This angered the French who then vented their wrath on both tribes and forced them to migrate. The newly confederated Nation then jointly attacked the Illini Confederacy for new lands that would later encompass the region north and west of the Illinois River.

Fox and Sac chiefs fell into three categories: civil, war, and ceremonial. Only the position of civil chief was hereditary---the others determined by demonstrated ability or spiritual power. The authority for enforcing the laws of their society resided in the civil chiefs and the Grand Council, composed of chiefs and adult braves. The posts of the civil chiefs were many, the first being hereditary. Actual power was exercised by the chief who displayed bravery, good oratory skill and wisdom. Even this individual found it expedite to bow to the wishes of the tribal Grand Council; which in the final analysis wielded the authority of the confederated Nation.

Power to lead a raiding party generally rested with anyone. Whenever the individual wished to organize a raiding party; prayer and fasting was undertaken to communicate with the Great Spirit. After receiving some sign or omen, he was able to rally others to his group. Great emphasis was placed upon skill and valor in combat, that there were always young Indians ever ready for war. If the individual could announce the Great Spirit had informed him of the location of some unsuspecting band of Sioux, Osage or Menominee there was no difficulty in recruiting his force. Individually, those wishing to join the raid would approach the leader's lodge and agree to place themselves under his leadership for the raid's duration.

Besides the civil chiefs, both nations recognized a group who were themselves the elite of the warriors, granting to all the members of this group the special title of war chief. These individuals retained this title only so long as they maintained a reputation for valor, wisdom and resourcefulness. Actual leadership in this group rested with the individual who was able to attract sufficient numbers to himself. Dreams and visions likewise played an important role in this special class.

John Hall a white man who had spent considerable time among the Sac in the 1830’s writes of the Sac form of government:

“. . . the office of the chief of the Sauks is partly elective and partly hereditary. The son is usually chosen as the successor of the father, if worthy, but if he be passed over, the most meritorious of the family is selected. There are several of these dignitaries and in describing their relative rank they narrate a tradition. They say that a great while ago their fathers had a long lodge, in the center of which were ranged four fires. By the first stood two chiefs, one on the right hand who was called the Great Bear, and one on the left hand was called the Little Bear. These were the Peace or Village Chiefs. They were the rulers of the tribe, the Great Bear the Chief and the other next in authority. At the second fire stood two chiefs, one on the right was called the Great Fox, and the one on the left was called the Little Fox. These were the War Chiefs or Generals. At the third fire stood two braves, who were called respectively, the Wolf and the Owl. At the fourth fire stood two others who were the Eagle and the Tortoise. These last four were not chiefs but braves of high reputations who occupied high places in the council and persons of influence, in peace or war.

The lodge of the four fires may have existed in fact or the tradition may be merely metaphorical. The chiefs actually rank in the order presented in this legend and the nation is divided into families or clans, each of which is distinguished by the name of an animal. Instead of being eight chiefs there are now twelve. The place of the Peace Chief, or Headman, confers honor rather than power and is by no means a desirable situation, unless the person has popular talents. He is nominally the first man in the tribe and presides over councils. All acts of importance are done in his name. But his power and influence depends on his personal weight of character; and when he happens to be a weak man, the authority is virtually exercised by the War Chief. He is expected to administer inflexible justice and be generous and must entertain his people occasionally with feasts and be liberal in giving presents. If anyone wishes to borrow a horse on a emergency, that person must approach this chief with his request. When a weak person succeeds to the hereditary chieftaincy, he becomes a tool in the hands of the War Chief, who commands the braves and young men and controls the elements of power.

The principal War Chief is often, therefore, the person whose name is most widely known and frequently confused with the Headman. The station of the War Chief is not hereditary, nor can it properly be said to be elective, for although in some cases of emergency, a leader is formerly chosen. They usually acquire reputation by success and rise gradually into confidence and command. The most distinguished warrior, especially if he be a man who is popular, by tacit consent becomes the War Chief. . .”

L I F E S T Y L E

The confederated Nation exhibited considerable order in their social organization. Every family belonged to one of several grouping or 'gens'. Membership in a gen which had such names as Bear, Wolf, Thunder or Sturgeon was hereditary. The gens were important for the transmission of property and held religious significance especially since most of the tribal

ceremonials employed the concept.

Generally, the heaviest concentration of Sacs were settled along the banks of the Mississippi River between the mouths of the Des Moines and Rock Rivers. Along the banks of the Mississippi, from the mouth of the Rock River to Prairie du Chien, a large population of Fox resided in scattered villages. The physiographic division of Illinois called the Galesburg Plain was considered home to the Fox; but from time to time various portions of the area were contested by the Kickapoo and Potawatomi.

The largest Sac village, Saukenuk, was located on a point of land between the Rock River and the Mississippi. It was occupied by a large majority of the Sac Nation and is estimated to have contained over a hundred lodges(hodensode) in 1817. Extensive bluegrass fields surrounded the village furnishing ample pasturage for horses. The rivers teemed with fish and on the fertile prairie which paralleled the Mississippi, the women of Saukenuk and adjoining villages tilled acres of corn.

They raised enough corn to allow for surplus to be sold to the traders; pumpkins, beans and squash were also cultivated. From the neighboring river bluffs gushed springs of clear water, while the land surrounding them supplied an abundance of berries, apples, plums and nuts enhancing their diet.

The close social and political organization between the two tribes strengthened their unity despite the migratory mode of life. Villages like Saukenuk were generally occupied only between hunting trips.

One important difference between the Fox and Sauk and neighboring tribes was they usually maintained large villages during the winter. Otherwise their housing was typical for the region. Large communal buffalo hunts, especially after they acquired horses in the 1760s, were conducted in the fall and provided much of their meat during winter, but like other Great Lakes Algonquin, when the Fox or Sauk wanted to hold a real feast for an honored guest, the main course was dog meat from which the expression "putting on the dog" has come.

In the spring, following the winter hunt, the Indians would return, plant their crops, and then deal with the company traders. On their arrival at the village they would open the cache of provisions which was left behind the previous fall. The cache was cunningly hidden by sod and blended in with the rest of the prairie. In it were dried corn, squashes, beans and crab apples wrapped in bark and would afford a welcome relief from the Spartan diet of the winter's hunt.

After the planting was finished, negotiating with the traders would begin. After which the gens held other feasts with dances on a regular schedule. The Indians would occasionally disperse in small hunting parties; following game and an unsuspecting band of Osage. The Fox enjoyed a reputation in and were particularly active in the production of metal. Their annual output, by some estimates, was of 3,000 to 4,000 pounds of smelted lead, most of which went to the traders. Roughly two months later the hunters, lead miners and fishermen would reassemble at the village to share the products and indulge in feasts, dances and games. With a bountiful harvest, feast would follow feast, resulting in dysentery being widely prevalent causing numerous deaths.

Among the favorite recreation was horse racing and ball games played out on the open prairie. The ball game, a variant of lacrosse, was played on a field measuring about 200 to 300 feat in length. The games were held by bands, or villages and the warriors fortified themselves by fasting and ceremonials, armed with rackets, they turned the sport into a modified form of mayhem. Everyone wagered guns, horses, blankets and other property on the outcome of the games and races.

Recreation came to a halt after the crops were in. The Tribal Council of the village would allot hunting areas for the winter and fix a date for departure. In late September the village crier announced the date to all. The last hours were devoted to final preparations and a food cache was concealed by each family to await their return from the winter hunt.

The bands upon reaching their allotted hunting grounds settled down and hunted until the season of intense cold arrived. They generally grouped themselves in the vicinity of trading posts and waited out the worst of winter in their lodges wrapped in mats and skins.

When the melting snows and warm breezes blew across the land heralding the approach of spring, the cycle would begin anew.

LACROSSE MATCH

K E O K U K

Around 1780 the half-breed daughter of a French trader gave birth to a son at the Saukenuk village near present-day Rock Island in Illinois. Although not a chief by birth, the young Sac named Kiyokag or Keokuk rose to the position through political maneuvering and a flare for negotiations. He realized early in his career it was best to steer clear of any direct confrontation with the white man. When tensions began to increase at Saukenuk, he convinced many of his people to cross over into Iowa and make camp on the Iowa River near Toolesboro.

An older Sauk warrior, Black Hawk, convinced the rest of the group to stay and defy the American intruders. Eventually, the Illinois militia burned the village and forced the remnant to join the younger chief in Iowa. Black Hawk refused to give up. Soon he was stirring up dissension within the tribe and declaring war. Kiyokag cleverly addressed the problem by agreeing to fight only if the women, children, and elderly were first put to death to spare them the agony of sure defeat.

Most of the tribal leaders backed down, but Black Hawk's band crossed the river at Oquawka and went on to fight what came to be known as the Black Hawk War. The war lasted only three months, and Kiyokag's wisdom was proven after Black Hawk's defeat. He also was able to convince the United States to allow his people to remain in southeast Iowa after the Treaty of 1832 forced the Sac and Fox to relinquish the eastern third of the state. The Sac generally inhabited the land to the south of the Quad Cities, while the Fox resided to the north. Because of Kiyokag's loyalty he was formally recognized by the United States government as the supreme chief of the confederated tribes of Sac and Fox; thereby, giving him overall authority over the Iowa Indians.

As a direct result of his non-threatening demeanor, the small strip of land along the Iowa River was given to the Sac and designated the Keokuk Reserve. The chief attempted to live in peace with his neighbors and bring harmony to the allied tribes for several more years. Although they were constantly asked to move to make room for settler expansion, the Sac and Fox Nation remained obedient under Kiyokag's leadership.

After 1838, the year Black Hawk died, they camped at Agency near Ottumwa and Fort Des Moines. In 1845, after selling their land holdings to repay huge debts owed to dishonest traders and whiskey peddlers, Kiyokag led his people away from Iowa and into the state of Kansas, where he died in 1848. Some say he had become an alcoholic and died from a severe attack of delirium tremens. Others claim he was killed by a member of his own tribe. Historians are not really sure what happened to him. The wisdom and congeniality of the old chief also made him an easy choice for namesake of a new settlement at the "Foot of the Rapids" south of Montrose.(Keokuk, Iowa)

In 1883 the remains of Kiyokag, fondly referred to as Chief Keokuk, were brought from Kansas and placed in a sandstone monument erected in his honor. A bronze statue was added to the top of the monument in 1913. Interestingly, the statue is not of Keokuk, but rather it is of a generic Sioux warrior.

Black Hawk was a Sauk (Sac) warrior noted for his resistance to the westward movement of the white man in Illinois. The tribal name, Sauk, comes from Osakiwug, meaning "People of the yellow earth." and belonged to the Algonquin linguistic stock, as did the Fox and Kickapoo. The Algonquin originated in eastern Ontario, Canada.

Black Hawk was born in 1767 near where the Rock River flows into the Mississippi. His native village, known as Saukenuk, was said to be the largest Indian community in the country. The Sac Nation probably had a population of 11,000 at that time. A residential section of the City of Rock Island, Illinois, stands there now.

At the age of just fifteen, Ma-ca-tai-me-she-kia-kiak joined a raid against the Osage. He succeeded in killing and scalping an enemy warrior, which entitled him upon return to Saukenuk to join in the scalp dance. At this early age, Black Hawk had become a Sac warrior. A short time later, he led seven Sauk warriors in an attack against an encampment of 100 Osages. Ma-ca-tai-me-she-kia-kiak killed an enemy, then escaped without losing a man. In a very short time, he became one of the most influential warriors in the Nation.

Black Hawk was a much-maligned man during his lifetime and the people in his day regarded him as a "blackguard cutthroat"(he did have a couple of notches on his tomahawk). Throughout his lifetime he was revered as a crafty and courageous warrior, by his people and some whites. Black Hawk was often referred to as being "quarrelsome" and "surly" and was accused of causing fear and uncertainly among the settlers in the area bordered by the Rock and Mississippi rivers.

However, his autobiography shows a different side of Black Hawk. Some idea of pre-reservation life survives because Black Hawk left an autobiography, dictated to a government interpreter in the region, and edited by John B. Patterson, an Illinois journalist, who published it in 1833. As a transcribed and edited oral source, its authenticity has been questioned, but even though some of the language seems to be Patterson's, there is much to suggest it does correctly represent the views of Black Hawk. Because of this, all text referring to statements made by Black Hawk, in this book, are derived from this source; except where expressly noted.

Near the end of his days, the Aged Warrior wanted the world to know he was not the villain he had been made out to be. He told it to a United States government interpreter. I believe the autobiography portrays an accurate account of Black Hawk and his involvement in the war of 1832. I use passages from the biography liberally to provide the aging warrior's perception of the events. Black Hawk's War is said to be the first in which Indians used horses. In 1831, there were about 6,000 Sauk living at Saukenuk. Today, there are fewer full-bloods numbered in the nation.

The Sac village was remarkable -- laid out in lots, blocks, streets and alleys. There was a village square surrounded by hodenosotes, or lodges which were long bark-covered loghouses measuring from 30 to 100 feet long and from 16 to 40 feet wide. Many of them housed an entire family, from grandparents down through grandchildren. They were finished with frames of upright posts covered with white .

elm bark. Running along the interior's length were benches along the wall, covered with blankets and skins. The open area between the benches was used for food preparation and cooking. The smoke exited out the open doors or seeped through the roof. Fences occasionally sub-divided the interior of the lodge; melon vines supported by the fences separated the families. A point on the bluff, 150 feet high, was called Black Hawk's Watchtower. In surrounding white oak trees, the Sauk built lookout platforms as smoke signal stations.

Black Hawk's Indian name was Ma-ka-bai-mis-he-kia-kiak. He was about the same age as Andrew Jackson, the man whom a dejected Black Hawk would confront, in captivity, before a watching nation when his cause went down in defeat. Black Hawk was almost six feet tall and in later years thin and hollow cheeked. His nose was hooked at the end like the beak of the bird for which he was named. His eyes were black and beady and his "scalp plucked bald except for a short tuft of hair on top." In his more virile years he was a formidable-looking personality, in his native attire.

Historians differ on his status among the Indians. Some say his father was a chief; others that he was a medicine man. Some say Black Hawk became a chief in his own right. Tilden's, 1880 Stephenson County (Illinois) history calls him a chief of the Sac and Fox Nation and a noted warrior. Others say he was never a chief but merely a great leader in battle.

In his biography, Black Hawk tells of falling heir to the great medicine bag of his forefathers and of holding it sacred for the rest of his life. It was likely a bundle made of skins, fabric or birch bark and contained a collection of charms, braids of sweetgrass, a buffalo tail, a hawk skin and other objects and thought to have magical powers.

"Before I take leave of the public," Black Hawk told the interpreter at the conclusion of his story, "I must contradict the stories that accuse me of having murdered women and children among the whites. This is false. I never did, nor have I any knowledge that any of my nation ever killed a white woman or child..." He said his hand had never been raised against any but warriors. "We can only judge of what is proper and right by our standard of right and wrong, which differs widely from the whites, if I have been correctly informed. The whites may do bad all their lives, and then, if they are sorry for it when about to die, all Is well! But with us it is different: we must continue throughout our lives to do what we conceive to be good. If we have corn and meat, and know of a family that have none, we divide with them. If we have more blankets than sufficient, and others have not enough, we must give to them that want.

But I will presently explain our customs, and the manner we live. . . Our village was situated on the north side of Rock river, at the foot of its rapids, and on the point of land between Rock river and the Mississippi. In its front, a prairie extended to the bank of the Mississippi; and in our rear, a continued bluff, gently ascending from the prairie. (In the 1882 edition the following sentence appears here: "On its highest peak our Watch Tower was situated, from which we had a fine view for many miles up and down Rock River, and in every direction.") On the side of this bluff we had our cornfields, extending about two miles up, running parallel with the Mississippi; where we joined those of the Foxes whose village was on the bank of the Mississippi, opposite the lower end of Rock island, and three miles distant from ours. We have about eight hundred acres in cultivation, including what we had on the islands of Rock river. The land around our village, uncultivated, was covered with bluegrass, which made excellent pasture for our horses. Several fine springs broke out of the bluff, near by, from which we were supplied with good water. The rapids of Rock river furnished us with an abundance of excellent fish, and the land, being good, never failed to produce good crops of corn, beans, pumpkins, and squashes.

We always had plenty-our children never cried with hunger, nor our people were never in want. Here our village had stood for more than a hundred years, during all which time we were the undisputed possessors of the valley of the Mississippi, from the Ouisconsin to the Portage des Sioux, near the mouth of the Missouri, being about seven hundred miles in length.

At this time we had very little intercourse with the whites, except our traders. Our village was healthy, and there was no place in the country possessing such advantages, nor no hunting grounds better than those we had in possession.

If another prophet had come to our village in those days, and told us what has since taken place, none of our people would have believed him. What! to be driven from our village and hunting grounds, and not even permitted to visit the graves of our forefathers, our relations, and friends?

This hardship is not known to the whites. With us it is a custom to visit the graves of our friends, and keep them in repair for many years. The mother will go alone to weep over the grave of her child! The brave, with pleasure, visits the grave of his father, after he has been successful in war, and repaints the post that shows where he lives! There is no place like that where the bones of our forefathers lie, to go to when in grief. Here the Great Spirit will take pity on us!

But, how different is our situation now, from what it was in those days! Then we were as happy as the buffalo on the plains-but now, we are as miserable as the hungry, howling wolf in the prairie! But I am digressing from my story. Bitter reflection crowds upon my mind, and must find utterance. .

When we returned to our village in the spring, from our wintering grounds, we would finish trading with our traders, who always followed us to our village. We purposely kept some of our fine furs for this trade; and, as there was great opposition among them, who should get these skins, we always got our goods cheap. After this trade was over, the traders would give us a few kegs of rum, which was generally promised in the fall, to encourage us to make a good hunt, and not go to war. They would then start with their furs and peltries for their homes.

After this trade was over, the traders would give us a few kegs of rum, which was generally promised in the fall, to encourage us to make a good hunt, and not go to war. They would then start with their furs and peltries for their homes.

Dance to the Berdache - Saukie

1861/1869 by George Catlin, Paul Mellon Collection,

Our old men would take a frolic (at this time our young men never drank). When this was ended, the next thing to be done was to bury our dead (such as had died during the year). This is a great medicine feast. The relations of those who have died, give all the goods they have purchased, as presents to their friends-thereby reducing themselves to poverty, to show the Great Spirit that they are humble, so that he will take pity on them. We would next open the cashes [sic], and take out corn and other provisions, which had been put up in the fall,-and then commence repairing our lodges. As soon as this is accomplished, we repair the fences around our fields, and clean them off, ready for planting corn. This work is done by our women. The men, during this time, are feasting on dried venison, bear's meat, wild fowl, and corn, prepared in different ways; and recounting to each other what took place during the winter.

Our women plant the corn, and as soon as they get done, we make a feast, and dance the crane dance, in which they join us, dressed in their best, and decorated with feathers. At this feast our young braves select the young woman they wish to have for a wife. He then informs his mother, who calls on the mother of the girl, when the arrangement is made, and the time appointed for him to come. He goes to the lodge when all are asleep (or pretend to be), lights his matches, which have been provided for the purpose, and soon finds where his intended sleeps. He then awakens her, and holds the light to his face that she may know him-after which he places the light close to her.

If she blows it out, the ceremony is ended, and he appears in the lodge the next morning, as one of the family. If she does not blow out the light, but leaves it to burn out, he retires from the lodge. The next day he places himself in full view of it, and plays his flute. The young women go out, one by one, to see who he is playing for. The tune changes, to let them know that he is not playing for them. When his intended makes her appearance at the door, he continues his courting tune, until she returns to the lodge. He then gives over playing, and makes another trial at night, which generally turns out favorable. During the first year they ascertain whether they can agree with each other, and can be happy--if not, they part, and each looks out again. If we were to live together and disagree, we should be as foolish as the whites. No indiscretion can banish a woman from her parental lodge- no difference how many children she may bring home, she is always welcome--the kettle is over the fire to feed them.

The crane dance often lasts two or three days. When this is over, we feast again, and have our national dance. The large square in the village is swept and prepared for the purpose. The chiefs and old warriors, take seats on mats which have been spread at the upper end of the square-the drummers and singers come next, and the braves and women form the sides, leaving a large space in the middle. The drums beat, and the singers commence. A warrior enters the square, keeping time with the music. He shows the manner he started on a war party- how he approached the enemy-he strikes, and describes the way he killed him. All join in applause. He then leaves the square, and another enters and takes his place. Such of our young men as have not been out in war parties, and killed an enemy, stand back ashamed-not being able to enter the square. I remember that I was ashamed to look where our young women stood, before I could take my stand in the square as a warrior.

What pleasure it is to an old warrior, to see his son come forward and relate his exploits--it makes him feel young, and induces him to enter the square, and "fight his battles o'er again."

This national dance makes our warriors. When I was travelling last summer, on a steam boat, on a large river, going from New York to Albany, I was shown the place where the Americans dance their national dance (West Point); where the old warriors recount to their young men, what they have done, to stimulate them to go and do likewise. This surprised me, as I did not think the whites understood our way of making braves.

When our national dance is over-our cornfields hoed, and every weed dug up, and our corn about knee-high, all our young men would start in a direction towards sundown, to hunt deer and buffalo-being prepared, also, to kill Sioux, if any are found on our hunting grounds-a part of our old men and women to the lead mines to make lead-and the remainder of our people start to fish, and get mat stuff. Every one leaves the village, and remains about forty days. They then return: the hunting party bringing in dried buffalo and deer meat, and sometimes Sioux scalps, when they are found trespassing on our hunting grounds. At other times they are met by a party of Sioux too strong for them, and are driven in. If the Sioux have killed the Sacs last, they expect to be retaliated upon, and will fly before them, and vice versa. Each party knows that the other has a right to retaliate, which induces those who have killed last, to give way before their enemy-as neither wish to strike, except to avenge the death of their relatives. All our wars are predicated by the relatives of those killed; or by aggressions upon our hunting grounds.

The party from the lead mines bring lead, and the others dried fish, and mats for our winter lodges. Presents are now made by each party; the first, giving to the others dried buffalo and deer, and they, in exchange, presenting them with lead, dried fish, and mats.

This is a happy season of the year-having plenty of provisions, such as beans, squashes, and other produce, with our dried meat and fish, we continue to make feasts and visit each other, until our corn is ripe. Some lodge in the village makes a feast daily, to the Great Spirit. I cannot explain this so that the white people would comprehend me, as we have no regular standard among us. Every one makes his feast as he thinks best, to please the Great Spirit, who has the care of all beings created. Others believe in two Spirits one good and one bad, and make feasts for the Bad Spirit, to keep him quiet! If they can make peace with him, the Good Spirit will not hurt them!

For my part, I am of opinion, that so far as we have reason, we have a right to use it, in determining what is right or wrong; and should pursue that path which we believe to be right- believing, that "whatever is, is right." If the Great and Good Spirit wished us to believe and do as the whites, he could easily change our opinions, so that we would see, and think, and act as they do. We are nothing compared to His power, and we feel and know it. We have men among us, like the whites, who pretend to know the right path, but will not consent to show it without pay! I have no faith in their paths--but believe that every man must make his own path!

When our corn is getting ripe, our young people watch with anxiety for the signal to pull roasting ears as none dare touch them until the proper time. When the corn is fit to use, another great ceremony takes place, with feasting, and returning thanks to the Great Spirit for giving us corn.

. . . . It has always been our custom to receive all strangers that come to our village or camps, . . to share with them the best provisions we have, and give them all the assistance in our power. If on a journey, or lost, to put them on the right trail--and if in want of moccasins, to supply them . . "

Black Hawk, lent his name to the frontier war that gave Abraham Lincoln his one experience in soldiering. He grew up during the period of Spanish ascendancy in the Mississippi Valley. Lived under four flags: Spanish, French, British and American. Hostile to American fur traders who manned the trading posts at St. Louis when the United States took over that area in 1804, he refused to recognize the Treaty of 1804 (St. Louis), in which Sac and Fox Nation was said, by the Americans, to have relinquished their claim to all lands east of the Mississippi.

During the War of 1812, Black Hawk fought for the British under the leadership of the famous Tecumseh. His only opportunity for action was during the siege of Fort Sanduski on the Niagara frontier.

In 1832 he led about three hundred warriors and their families which numbered around 1,700 women, children and the aged back across the Mississippi. Disappointed when no help was offered by neighboring tribes, he was on the verge of seeking a truce that precipitated the Black Hawk War. On August 2, 1832, the Indians were overwhelmed at Bad Axe River, Wisconsin, and Black Hawk was taken prisoner, shortly afterwards.

When President Andrew Jackson ordered Black Hawk brought east in 1833, the Sac chief became a celebrity and attracted great crowds. His courage, integrity, and dignity were revealed in his Autobiography(1833), which has become an American classic.

Black Hawk along with his two sons were imprisoned after the war and taken with other captives on a tour of major eastern cities. He was shown around the country ordered by President Andrew Jackson as spoils of war and paraded along the streets perhaps in an attempt to discourage further resistance by the Indians.

The government's explanation was that they were showing him how useless it was to oppose the might of the United States. Throngs gathered to see him. The old chief, sorrowful but maintaining his dignity, gained the admiration of the country. He became a hero in the eyes of Americans instead of a "bloodthirsty savage" the government had portrayed him to be. He said that in the future the white man would always be welcome as a brother in his nation's villages.

Black Hawk died on Oct. 31, 1838, on a reservation near Des Moines, Iowa. His body was placed in a small shelter in Indian fashion. Even in death, Black Hawk knew no peace. Later his bones were removed to a historical society building in Burlington, Iowa, where they were put on display and shortly afterward the building's contents was lost in a fire.

The Old Warrior may well be remembered by the words he used in speaking to Old Hickory:, when they first met, "I am a man and you are another".

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Last updated on NOVEMBER 08, 2002 by J.D. Tipfer