Since the beginning of civilization, the reality of war and the imposition of one persons will upon another has been a constant threat. In the sixth millennium BCE, as people began to settle the Mesopotamian region, disputes among cities naturally arose and the first raids took place. By the fourth millennium, enough cities had arisen to make distances between some as little as 20 to 30 miles. Here, arguments arose over who had the right to water sources or even questions of where boundaries lay. This continued to snowball until the terrible truth of warfare emerged.
Walls were erected around cities as early as the civilizations of Sumer in the third millennium. Ancient tablets even tell of a massive army of 5,400 soldiers during the reign of Sargon, the Akkadian. At this point, scholars are unsure of what lead to the development of such huge collections of warriors. Some think that all fit men might have been obligated to serve a portion of their time. The code of Hammurabi of Babylon talks of such a system whereby men were allowed to hold property in exchange for military service or municipal type maintenance in the city such as working on the water system.
Scholars today feel that whenever a battle did take place, more than likely, neither side had an advantage thus making the death tolls fairly low. Each side would live similar lives, following the same gods, and using the same warfare and defense strategies. If one group of warriors developed a new means for protection or a better weapon, it would not be long before the other side balanced the playing field with a similar advancement.
Long Range Weapons
Some of the most effective long range arms include the bow and arrow which could reach a distance of 300 to 400 yards. Old Testament texts discuss the expert archers of Israel and their neighbors (1 Chronicles 5:18, 8:40; 2 Chronicles 17:17). The bows would be made of individual pieces of wood or layers of wood, horn, and sinew glued together. Sometimes this was even covered in bronze. The bows would be anywhere from 3 to 6 feet in length.
The arrows consisted of wooden shafts or even reeds which would be tipped with metal heads. These were often hammered differently to better accommodate the various defenses of the enemy. Arrows were then guided by the feathers of an eagle, vulture, or kite and stored in a leather quiver on the back of the soldier. Such quivers could hold between 20 and 30 arrows. A quiver strapped to a chariot could hold up to 50. Other devises include a arm cover made of leather to protect the archer from the string used to shoot the arrow.
Short Range Weapons
A variety of arms were used for the close range, hand-to-hand fighting. Some were long, some short; some were sharp while others dull. A spear for thrusting much heavier than the javelin was used and could even be thrown. Foot soldiers often would line the front battle lines carrying a rectangular shield with projecting spikes.
Both single and double edged swords were used in ancient times. The single edges worked by swinging and hitting the enemy to cut and tear. Blades of such swords were either straight or curved with the sharp edge being on the outside of a curved one. A double edged sword was effective most in piercing though it could be used to slash as well. The swords were a variety of lengths and widths and were most often carried in a sheath strapped to the belt. Only length made the difference between a sword and a dagger.
Other weapons include the mace and battle ax. Maces were heavy battle clubs that could easily crush an opponent. They consisted of stone or metal head attached to a flared wooden handle. The battle ax had a narrow, sharp edge that could pierce through battle armor. Other military weapons included the battering rams used to force entrance into a walled city through locked gates.
Defense Technology
Shields and body armor were used as protection against the various weapons. The shield was carried and made of wicker or leather pulled across a wooden frame and had handles on the inside. Later, metal plates were attached over the leather to afford more protection. Shields could have been rounded and used to cover a portion of the body, or larger rectangular to provide the whole body protection. Sometimes a shield barer was used when such large ones were carried.
Body armor often included helmets since the head was so vulnerable. Helmet shapes were often distinctive within each army or even unit to help the commander tell on unit from another. As time progressed, the torso was often covered with small metal plates stitched to cloth or leather. This breastplate was frequently worn by archers and those riding in chariots. Leg armor does not appear to have been conventional for ancient times.
Sources:
- Brown, Brown M., ed. Sumer: Cities of Eden, Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1993.
- Butler, Trent C., ed. Holman Bible Dictionary, Nashville, Tennessee: Holman Bible Publishers, 1991.
