Historical Overview of Rome, Florence, and Pisa

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Rome

Tradition has it that the Eternal City of Rome was founded by twin brothers, Romulus and Remus, in 753 BC. Around 500 BC, a republic was established. Although Rome successfully extended its control to surrounding regions, class struggles at home eventually led to civil war. Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Marcus Licinius Crassus formed a ruling triumvirate (60 BC) that reunited the city for awhile. By 48 BC, the triumvirate had unravelled and Caesar, who was popular because of his military successes, essentially ruled Rome. Caesar was assassinated on the steps of the Senate in 44 BC and a second triumvirate was formed that included Octavian (Caesar's nephew), Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus. Like the first, the second triumvirate eventually failed. By his victory over Mark Antony (and Cleopatra) at Actium in 31 BC, Octavian, who declared himself Augustus, emerged ruler of Rome and is considered the first Roman Emperor.

Octavian's rule began a 200 year period of peace and prosperity called the Pax Romana. A magnificent city was built, government efficiently organized, roads, transportation, commerce and industry were developed, and the arts flourished. Not all the emperors to succeed Octavian, however, were as progressive. Caligula and Nero were cruel tyrants. Nero began the persecution of the Christians, probably had the city burned, and committed suicide. Others expanded the empire. Claudius I conquered half of Britain, and Trajan pushed the borders of the eastern empire beyond Mesopotamia. Under Marcus Aurelius (161-180), Rome enjoyed what has been called the Golden Age when the empire spread from Britain, across western Europe, and included all lands surrounding the Mediterranean. But as the empire spread, and incorporated more and more people of varying backgrounds and cultures, trouble developed, and the empire started on a 300 year decline. In 284, Diocletian divided the empire into an Eastern and a Western part, with an emperor in each part, as an attempt to better localize control. Constantine I declared Christianity the state religion and moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium (renamed Constantinope). In 395 the empire was permanently divided and Rome and the western part quickly disintegrated. Barbarians sacked Rome in 410 and again in 455. In 476, Odoacer, an Ostrogoth chief, deposed the last emperor, Augustus Romulus, and had himself crowned king. The eastern empire continued into the 15th century, while the west fell into the period known as the Dark Ages.

Italy emerged from the Dark Ages during the Renaissance period (14th-16th centuries). Although highly advanced culturally, the Italian city-states were not militarily powerful and were often caught up in wars between various European powers. In 1800, Napoleon conquered all of Italy, but by the mid 19th century, led by such men as Giuseppe Garibaldi, there was a strong nationalistic movement for a unified state. In 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was established and by 1870 the nation was unified under King Vittorio Emanuele II.

Although they fought with the Allies, the economic chaos that followed World War I gave rise to the Fascist Part led by Benito Mussolini. In 1922, the king was deposed and Mussolini took control of the country. Mussolini allied Italy with Nazi Germany in 1940, but was captured and hung in Milan in 1945. After World War II, Italy established an elected democratic form of government.

The Flavian Amphitheatre, or Colosseum, was built in 80 AD with seating for 50,000. On its opening day, 5000 animals were slaughtered. It could be flooded for naval battles, and a linen awning could be drawn over to convert it to a "domed" stadium. The Greek columns on the exterior are just decoration, not used as support. Most of the damage to the theatre was caused by people carrying away stones for other construction purposes such as homes. Contrary to popular belief, Christians were not "thrown to the lions" in the Colosseum. The Christian martyrs (and historians maintain there were fewer than we've been led to believe) died in the circus of Nero (now the Vatican). Instead, the Colosseum was used primarily for gladitorial duels and elaborate, often decadent "carnivals."

The Arch of Constantine, first Christian emperor, stands just outside the Colosseum.

The Pantheon was built in the second century AD as a temple to the gods. It is now a Christan church and the burial site of Raphael and Victor Emanuele II. (Note: The Pantheon is in Rome, the Panthenon is in Paris, and the Parthenon is in Athens - got it?)

Castel Sant 'Angelo was originally a mausoleum for the Emperor Hadrian.

At the Piazza Venezia you will find the huge, white monument to Victor Emanuelle II, the Vittoriano. It is also the site of the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Some Romans think the monument is too big and too white and many refer to it as the "birthday cake." Diagonally across from the Vittoriano you can see the balcony on which Mussolini stood to give his impassioned speeches to throngs packing the square.

The Roman Forum and other ruins of the city can best be appreciated by buying a book available from hotels, bookstores, and street vendors. The book includes transparent overlays that fold over onto a photograph of the ruins that you will be looking at so that you can see what the buildings looked like originally. Otherwise, you won't be able to make much sense out of what you're viewing.

St. Peter's Basilica and the Vatican museums, including the Sistine Chapel, will probably bethe highlight of your tour of Rome. St. Peter's supposedly stands on the site where the disciple Peter is buried and is the largest church in Christendom. You won't be able to see all of the Vatican if you're only there a day or two. At least tour the church and the Sistine Chapel. The original St. Peter's was built around 326 AD by order of the Emperor Constantine. That structure, however, was razed for the new church built by Pope Julius II starting in 1506. The church was not consecrated until 1626 by Pope Urban VIII. The dome was designed by Michelangelo (and served as the model for the dome of the U.S. Capitol). The church is 615 feet long and covers over 160,000 square feet. It contains numerous art masterpieces chief among them being Michelangelo's Pieta. Of course, it was also Michelangelo that the Pope chose to "decorate" the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Recently restored, if there's anything man-made more beautiful, I don't know what it is.

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Florence

The Renaissance (1400-1600), a period of the rebirth of the classical values and perspective of ancient Rome, was centered in Florence. The Renaissance was a humanist movement that reasserted the value of individuals, of the basic goodness and creativity of mankind, of reality, and of natural beauty including that of the human form. The Renaissance gave roots to the modern nation-state, a new economic system, and a new intellectualism including the Reformation and modern science. But we most often "see" the Renaissance in art and architecture, and Florence knew the masters including Michelangelo Buonarotti, Leonardo da Vinci, Lorenzo Ghiberti, and Fillipo Brunelleschi. It was Brunelleschi who built the classical dome that crowns the cathedral in Florence (1420-1436).

In the Academy Museum you'll find Michelangelo's "David" (1504) one of the most dramatic and famous sculptures in the world. Michelangelo sculpted "David" at the age of 26. Originally, the statue was intended to sit atop Brunelleschi's dome and it stands 13.5' high. The face was sculpted to represent the moment at which David decided to slay Goliath, and the entire sculpture symbolizes the ideal Renaissance man; poised, confident, assertive. Take a moment to look into David's eyes.

Near the entrance to the cathedral, you'll find the Baptistry. One day Michelangelo was sitting on the steps of the cathedral gazing at the doors to the Baptistry, and he remarked that the doors were so beautiful they could be the "Gates of Paradise," and so they've been known ever since. The Baptistry doors consist of ten biblical scenes sculpted in separate bronze panels by Ghiberti (1430). The scenes are not only beautiful sculptures, they show Ghiberti's mastery of mathematical perspective. Notice how the architectural forms in the panels recede into the background. Ghiberti won a contest to decorate the Baptistry doors. The other finalist was Brunelleschi. In the Bargello Museum, panels by each artist are displayed side-by-side for your judgement. Unfortunately, the best known works of da Vinci are not to be found in Florence. The "Last Supper" is a fresco in Milan undergoing careful restoration, and the "Mona Lisa," of course, hangs in the Louvre. One interesting note about Leonardo though. Did you know that his notebooks were written inside out and backwards so that they can only be read using a mirror? It's believed he did this to hide the fact that he dissected corpses. That was strictly against the law though most of the really great artists were guilty of the same thing. None of da Vinci's sculptures have survived and only a few of his paintings.

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Pisa

Pisa, sitting on the Arno River estuary, was a maritime power between the 9th and 11th centuries. Its ships transported Norman troops to the Holy Land during the First Crusade and, in the process, established trading centers in the east. The treasures its ships brought home were used to build the "Square of Miracles" (Campo dei Miracoli). On the square are three magnificent buildings including a Romanesque cathedral, a like-style Baptistry, and the Leaning Tower. The Tower is over 800 years old, stands 165 feet tall, and inclines 14 feet from the vertical. The cause of the tilt is still debated - perhaps shifting soil below or an architectural fault. It is said that Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) used the tower to conduct his famous experiments in the speed at which objects fall. Galileo is the most famous son of Pisa. During the Guelph (pro-Pope) and Ghibelline (pro-emperor) wars, Pisa was defeated by Genoa (1284). Later, it was conquered by Florence (1406) ending its prosperity.

• The city of Pompeii was buried under ashes (79 AD) that preserved the ruins until the city was found again in 1748.
• St. Peter's is the largest church in the Christian world. It was built between 1506 and 1626. The dome (designed by Michelangelo) stands 404' high and is 137' in diameter.
• Michelangelo overheard admirers of his "Pieta" (in St. Peter's) wondering who did the work. That night he went back and carved his name in the sculpture, his only "signed" work.
• It took Michelangelo four years (1508-1512) to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.
• The family name "Caesar" eventually became a title and is the source of "Kaiser" and "Czar."
• Gladiators fought in the Coliseum until 404 AD.