Psychology professor James Alcock's theory of the Belief Engine (decribed by Jane Goldman in her fascinating companion books to the series The X-Files) may help to explain whyvpeople throughout history have come to believe in a number of religious and/or paranormal phenomena--or why they haven't! The Belief Engine is capable of creating beliefs that are just as false as others are true. The Belief Engine works thus:

• The mind tends to store, link, and connect positive cause-and-effect associations better than negative ones. You remember all the times you thought of someone and they called, but not the times they didn't.
• Our rational mind and natural intuitions are constantly in conflict. Moreover, the mind usually loses. If we see a random event happen repeatedly, we tend to think that it will happen again, even though our minds tell us that it is completely up to chance.
• We constantly organize information so that it fits with other information we already believe.
• We tend to remember things that caused a strong emotional reaction. If you are startled by what you think is a ghost, but was really a shadow, you will always wonder if your initial reaction was correct.
• Most of the time we trust our memories as unbiased recordings. However, this isn't always true. We remember things in a way the makes sense to us, sometimes distorting the facts.
• Beliefs we already hold are very hard for us to let go of. We'll discard new information if it challenges our beliefs.
• We seek out those who believe as we do. And we'll try to convert those who don't.

• Nihilism- A nihilst is one who rejects all meaning attached to the universe and humanity. Nihilists do not believe in a deity, nor do they accept that existence has any signifigance other than that which we give it.
• Atheism- Not seen traditionally as a religion, atheism does fit our established definition. Atheists simply believe that there is no deity. Thus, their belief system is structured around a more humanist view of morality.
• Agnosticism- The word agnostic is from the Greek for "no knowledge". An agnostic postulates that at our present level, or perhaps at no level, can we say that there is or is not a God. The term is also used to refer to someone who simply isn't sure whether or not they belief in one religion over another, although this may not be a correct usage.
• Animism- The belief that a "life-force" is present in everything. Also used to denote the belief in personalized spirits and souls that inhabit objects, places and people. Animism is common among preliterate peoples, but is also incorporated into the world religions to some degree.
• Theism- The belief in a god or gods.
  • Polytheism- The belief in more than one god. Commonly, the gods of a polytheistic belief system represent aspects of the natural world and the human psyche. They may exhibit many human characteristics and may have kinship with each other. Often, a pantheon, or group of major gods, features prominently in myth and is said to govern the other gods. Many of the Classical religions and a majority of the religions of preliterate peoples are polytheistic.
  • Henotheism- The belief in one god without denying the existene of other gods and also without reference to them. Early Judaism was henotheistic.
  • Duotheism- The belief in two deities, usually opposites in some way. The Wiccan belief in the God and Goddess is duotheistic.
  • Monotheism- The belief in one god. Although uncommon as a religious type, the major monotheistic religions, such as modern Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, have a wide following around the world. Most monotheistic religions accept one creator god, usually male, who is responsible for the universe. The major monotheistic religions frown upon worship of other gods and reject the idea of idol worship.
  • Deism- A common belief during the Age of Enlightenment (the 1700s), a Deist believes that a deity does exist and did create the world. However, the deity's involvment ended at this point. The world was left to run by predetermined laws rather than through divine intervention. Both Deism and agnostism can be seen as reactions to the advent of modern science, and Deism relies on truths revealed through studying the natural world.
• Panentheism- The belief that God is in the universe and at the same time transcends it.
• Pantheism- The belief that God literally is the universe. Hinduism is technically pantheistic, although Brahman is manifested through deities like Vishnu and Siva.
• Ascetism- Ascetics conclude that there is a conflict between the needs of the body and those of the spirit. By rejecting the body's desires, one can achieve a higher spiritual awareness. Ascetism has been a part of many organized religions, but has been followed in original forms by many people. Ascetics such as monks and nuns have been very imfluential in both Christianity and Buddhism.

• Sacramental- Those religions that find manifestations of the sacred in things and places and perform rituals on those sacred elements.
• Prophetic- Those religions that find manifestations of the sacred in historical events or words.
• Mystical- Those religions that find manifestations of the sacred in the experiences of individual people.

• Avatar Tradition- Those religions that are centered around manifestations of the sacred in the form of gods or persons. This form takes its name from the Hindu idea of the avatar, an incarnation of a deity in human or animal shape.
• Messenger Tradition- Those religions that are centered around manifestations of the sacred in the form of divine messages.

• Exclusivism- A belief that one's own truth is the only valid thruth one can hold. Essentially, this says that no one else's belief system is right for everyone, and that you must find your own religious convictions, regardless of what others may say.
• Inclusivism- A belief that, although another person's beliefs may not agree with your own, they are perfectly valid and deserve respect.
• Syncretistic- A religion that is a merger of ideas from more than one faith. Many modern religions are syncretistic.

Angelology

The concept of the angel is common to the three current monotheistic religions of the West: Judaism, Christinaity, and Islam. Various prophets, theologians, and mystics have added to the lore of angels over several thousand years. There are countless informal sources, including folklore and popular stories, as well as material from traditions like Zoroastrianism and the religions of ancient Sumer and Babylon that have contributed to the concept of the angel. Furthermore, religions from other parts of the world, particularly India, contain similar concepts that may have influenced or been influenced by the Western angelic traditions. The following list is a broad outline of some of the best known and most important written sources of angelic lore in the West.

Primary Sources

Judaism

• The Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament)
• The Apocrypha (200 BCE-200 CE): Books of the Hebrew Bible that are generally ascribed less authority than canonical scriptures. These include the Book of Tobit, 1 and 2 Maccabees, and Baruch.
• Pseudepigrapha (200 BCE-200 CE): Writings attributed to patriarchs and prophets, often describing journeys to Heaven.
  • Ascension of Isaiah (Christian influenced)
  • Ascension of Moses (1st Century CE)
  • Book of Enoch (or 1 Enoch, Ethiopian Enoch) (1st Century BCE)
  • Book of Jubilees (5th or 6th Century BCE-70 CE)
  • Fourth Book of Ezra
  • Testament of Abraham
• Mishnah: the Jewish oral law.
• Talmud (complied from 1-c. 600 CE): Commentaries on Jewish oral tradition.
• Midrashim: rabbinical and theological interpretations of the Bible.
• Mystical Traditions
  • Hekhalot: Mystical reflections on the palaces of Heaven.
    • Hekhalot Zutartei
    • Hekhalot Rabbati
    • Sefer Hekhalot (or Third Book of Enoch)
  • Kabbalah (Middle Ages): Mystical and magical practices centered around contemplation of the mystery of God..
    • Zohar (13th-15th Century CE): authored by Mosheh de Leon (1240-1305 CE) and later contributors, the third most sacred book after the Bible and Talmud.
  • Merkabah: Mystical reflections on the chariot on which the prophet Elijah ascended to Heaven.
    • 3 Enoch (5-6th Century CE)
• Maimonides (1135-1204): Jewish philosopher

Secondary Sources

The Heavenly Choirs

• Seraphim- "firemakers" These angels are created representations of Divine Love. A seraph constantly praises God and drives away darkness. Seraphim are of great subtlety and are usually imperceptible to humans. However, they are said to resemble humans with four heads and six wings. They are able to shed their skins and reveal their true glory. High angels of the Seraphim include Seraphiel, Michael, Metatron, and Lucifer before his Fall.
• Cherubim- "fullness of knowledge" The Cherubim are the voices of Divine Wisdom. They enlighten and emanate holiness to ensure truth. Cherubim function as the charioteers of God. A cherub can appear a human-like form having four faces, six wings, and many eyes. Chiefs of the Cherubim include Cherubiel, Raphael, Gabriel, and Lucifer before his Fall.
• Ophanim- (also called Thrones) The Ophanim function as the chariots of God, giving out Divine Justice, and are characterized by peace and submission. The Ophanim reside on the edge of material reality, and are said to have the form of a great wheel with many eyes.

• Dominions- This Choir regulates the duties of the angels, and makes known the commands of God. The Dominions represent Divine Mercy.
• Virtues- The Virtues govern the physical creation of God. These angels perform miracles and represent Divine Grace. Michael was said to be a Virtue.
• Powers- The Powers battle Evil and protect the plans if the other angels. It is said that they are capable of both Good and Evil, and that they may govern the actions of demons. The Powers represent Divine Strength. Chiefs of the Powers include Samael and Camael.

• Principalities- These angels watch over great nations and cities on Earth. They are also the protectors of religions. The Principalities represent Divine Authority. Their leaders are Requel, Anael, Cerviel, and Nisroc.
• Archangels- The Archangels are liaisons between God and mankind. They are the supervisors of the Angels. They also serve as guardians of important figures. It is said that there may be only seven Archangels. This number may include Michael, Gabriel, Phanuel, Uriel, and several others. Raphael is said to be prince of the Archangels.
• Angels- This is the most numerous Choir. The Angels minister to humans and protect them. They also relay prayers to God. Angels reflect the will of God.

Orders

• Angels of the Presence: According to the Book of Jubilees, this exalted group of angels who are especially close to God. The Angels of the Presence are said to keep the cosmic secrets, and one of their number is said to be the angel who commanded Moses to write down every word God said on Mt. Sinai. There are traditionally twelve angels in this order including Michael, Metatron, Sandalphon, Uriel, Jahoel, Suriel, Astanphaeus, Saraqael, Phanuel, Zagzagel, Yefefiah, and Akatriel. Rabbinical lore also says there are seventy tutelary angels who belong to this order. In the Zohar, it is said that these angels were expelled from heaven because they revealed God's Purpose!
• Angels of Destruction: Many Angels of Destruction are named throughout the Bible and other texts. They are the "swords of God" and punish sinners with illness, plague, pestilence, misfortune, or death. Among the most well-known Angels of Destruction are Uriel, Azrael, and Gabriel. Various sources cite either Simkiel or Kemuel as leader of this order.
• Angels of Death: The Angels of Death act as psychopomp, or guide to the soul following death. The Angel of Death announces the death, and takes the soul to either Heaven or Hell. Angels of this order include Michael, Gabriel, Metatron, and Iblis. There are Angels of Death among the Fallen as well.
• The Grigori: The Book of Jubilees, the Book of Enoch, and other works tell of an order of angels known as the Grigori, or Watchers. These angels inspected and watched the Earth, but eventually they began to lust after human women. They came down to Earth and began having children with these women, mixing the spirit of angels with the flesh of men and creating the terrible Nephilim. They also began to share all manner of angelic knowledge with humankind, including the arts of warfare and vanity. This did not please God and he cast out these rebelling angels, called by some texts the "Sons of God". Later Christian scholars interpreted this as the Fall of Lucifer and his Rebels. Among the angels named in the many texts are Shemyaza (who repented), Azael, Baraqijal, and Sariel. The Jewish Day of Atonement involves a ritual in which a goat (or scapegoat) is given all the sins of the village and thrown over a cliff to the angel Azael. There are many others. Not all of the Grigori rebelled. A holy order of Grigori still exists in Heaven.
• The Great Archangels: The Bible mentions few angels by name. However, the names of countless angels are to be found in Hebrew and Christian folklore, the writing of the great Christian and Jewish scholars who studied angels during the Middle Ages, and the apocryphal texts. Some angels stand out above all others.
  • Gabriel- "Hero of God" Assigned in post-Biblical lore as an Archangel as well as the Cherub guarding the entrance to Eden. Gabriel is an angel of messages. He is named as the angel who announces the birth of John the Baptist as well announcing the birth of Jesus to Mary. Gabriel is also believed to have participated in numerous Biblical events, unnamed of course. It is thought Gabriel is the angel who will sound the trumpet of judgement and resurrection.
  • Michael- "Who is like God" Michael is named in the Bible and is counted as an Archangel and a Virtue, as well as an Angel of the Presence. Michael's roles are numerous. He serves as protector, healer, guardian, and warrior (in which guise he led God's army against the Fallen). Michael is an angel of repentance, mercy, righteousness, and salvation. He is the best known of all angels. Michael is most often portrayed in warrior's garb, holding a sword and scales, and trampling Satan.
  • Raphael- "Medicine of God" Counted as a Seraph, Cherub, Dominion, Power, and Archangel, Raphael fulfills many tasks. Featured prominently in the Book of Tobit, part of the Catholic canon, Raphael is said to be a healer and teacher. He is charged with the physical well being of humanity. Raphael is said to be the friendliest of angels.
  • Uriel- "Fire of God" In non-canonical lore, Uriel is assigned to the choirs of Seraphim, Cherubim, and Archangels. He is depicted as a stern and punishing angel. One cryptic passage suggests that Uriel became the mortal Jacob. Uriel may possibly be a Fallen Angel. He is often shown holding a flame in his open hand.
• The Fallen: Throughout the millennia, people have been interested in knowing why there is evil in the world. One explanation, created over centuries by theologians, writers, priests, and prophets is the story of the Fallen, angels who rejected the Divine Plan and have sought dominion over the world. The most common tale is that the angel Lucifer, or Satan, greatest of all angels, gave in to pride, coveting God's kingdom. Lucifer and one third of the angels in heaven rebelled and a war was fought in Heaven between Lucifer's followers and the loyal angels lead by Michael. Michael's troops prevailed and the Rebels were cast into Hell. However, Lucifer was not willing to accept defeat and the battle has raged on ever since. The idea of a separate entity controlling evil grew necessary in Christian theology because orthodox doctrine indicated that God was perfectly good and therefore incapable of doing evil. The paradox of believing in One God and at the same time believing in an equally powerful being responsible for evil has plagued Christianity for practically its entire history.
• Evolution of Evil: The Christian religion is based on redemption, the idea of overcoming evil. For evil to be overcome, it must first exist. For centuries, the Fallen Angels have been the symbol of evil to the Western world. But how these angels came to be is still a mystery. There are seven theories to explain the Fall of the Rebel Angels.
  • The Shadow of God- In early Judaism, all acts of good and evil were attributed to Yahweh. Originally this Mal'ak was the dark side of God. This idea grew into the Word, Voice, or Touch of God, and then into the ha-satan, the neutral "adversary" of the Old Testament. Eventually, the idea of a separate force responsible for evil grew out of this dark side of God and became personified in Mastema, Prince of the Evil Spirits. The Fall was complete.
  • Free Will- This idea from Origen of Alexandria, a leader of the early Greek Church, stated that God had created a number of angelic intelligences with free will. Some of these beings drifted away from their orbits around God, entered the aerial region around Earth, becoming angels. Others drifted down and took on human form. If these angels continued their trend of drift, they would eventually become "cold and obscure" demons. Origen concluded that, as angels can become human, humans can become angels, too
  • Lust- This story goes that the bene ha Elohim or "Sons of God" were assisting in the creation of Eden. Some of the "Sons" began to teach humans and became enamored with mortal women. These angels were the aforementioned Grigori. The coupling of angels and humans led to the birth of horrible mutants. The loyal angles dispatched the mutants and God chained the angles in everlasting Hell, but they have managed to tempt humanity ever since. This tale comes from Enoch the Scribe.
  • Pride- Many sources point to a plot by an angel to place his throne higher than God's. This angel has been identified with Lucifer in the New Testament, the "Bringer of Light" who Jesus sees fall from Heaven. Later Lucifer was said to be the highest of angels, second only to God in power. This story was popularized in John Milton'sParadise Lost.
  • War- It is also told that at the Beginning, God created his angels with free will, but knew that they would sin. So He gave them Divine Grace to help them see their place in the cosmos. Then God created a second group without the gift of Grace. Sure enough, they sinned and a war broke out in Heaven. Michael, on the side of good, cast out the sinners. In the final battle, the good angels will triumph. But the Fallen don't care; they are determined to follow their chosen path.
  • The Passion of the Redeemer- In this tale, the evil angels have already Fallen through pride. But their final failure comes in the form of Christ. St. Augustine tells us that until Christ's coming, God had allowed the Fallen to tempt and punish sinners. But by tempting Christ, who was pure and not a sinner, Satan broke his deal and so was damned. Christ breaks the power of evil, as the reconciliation between God and His Creation.
  • Disobediance- When God created Adam, He commanded the angels to bow before him. But Satan, the greatest of Seraphim, refused. God was enraged and threw Satan out of Heaven and one third of the angels followed. A poignant Sufi version tells us that when God created the angels, He commanded them to bow to no one but Himself. When He instructed Satan to bow before Adam, Satan refused because he couldn't break God's earlier commandment. Satan is thrown into Hell, which for him is a torment because it is the complete absence of his beloved God.
• Incubi and Succubi: Among the Fallen were demons that preyed on the sexual fears of men and women. An incubus was a male demon that came to women at night and had intercourse with them; the succubus was his female counterpart. According to medieval legend, the succubus would collect the semen of her victim and transfer it into the incubus. The incubus would then use this cursed semen to impregnate mortal women, who would bare demonic or evil children, and sometimes sorcerers. According to one version of the Arthurian legend, Merlin was born from the coupling of a succubus and a nun. These sexual demons were used to explain everything from nocturnal emissions to deformed babies. A victim of one of these demons would not be aware of the violation, although he or she might experience it as a dream. In fact, the word incubus is Latin for "nightmare".

Reincarnation

Ghosts

Personology

Gary Goldschneider's "personology" system is based on the supposition that people born on the same day of the year tend to share personality traits. The system depends on the symbolic associations of the astrological signs and other related symbols for its structure. I am not a believer in astrology, but I found this system offered some interesting personality insights and a plethora of personal symbols drawn from traditional occult sources. It is somewhat less hokey than most astrological systems, and is fun to play with.

• SPRING (March 21-June 21)- HUMAN AGE: 0-21, which represents a time of highly subjective growth. Spring people have strong intuitive and unconscious drives CUSP CONCEPTS: Rebirth, Power, Energy DOMINANT FACULTY: Intuition THE SPRING PERSONALITY: Those born in spring manifest an enthusiasm for life. They tend to be extroverted, with prodigious energy for projects. They tend to heavily affect their environment. Spring people like to share what they think, create, and produce. They are in need of appreciation and approval. Those born in this season desire to be free and may not react well to restrictions. They need to grow. Spring people have a childlike quality all through life. They are innocent, spontaneous, and impulsive, and may react badly to those who are too serious.
  • ARIES (March 21-April 20)- ELEMENT: Fire QUALITY: Cardinal RULER: Mars SYMBOL: The Ram MODE: Intuition MOTTO: I Am HUMAN AGE: 0-7 THE ARIES PERSONALITY: Aries people, like young children, are spontaneous, frank, open, self-centered, and willful. They are innocent and see the world with awe and wonder. They also want to be the center of attention and explore the world around them.
  • TAURUS (April 21-May 21)- ELEMENT: Earth QUALITY: Fixed RULER: Venus SYMBOL: The Bull MODE: Sensation MOTTO: I Have HUMAN AGE: 7-14 THE TAURUS PERSONALITY: These people are maintainers and sharers. They crave autonomy and love physical activities. Taureans are observers and strategists who live for their loved ones. They are good team players.
  • GEMINI (May 22-June 21)- ELEMENT: Air QUALITY: Mutable RULER: Mercury SYMBOL: The Twins MODE: Thought MOTTO: I Communicate HUMAN AGE: 14-21 THE GEMINI PERSONALITY: Geminis are very individual. They seek excitement and travel, having energy to burn. They are group people who, however, don't form emotional attachments easily.
• SUMMER (June 21-Sept 23)- HUMAN AGE: 21-41, which represents the maturing adult. Objectivity and wisdom are manifested, though many routes to the personality may have already closed. These people tend to act in more rational ways CUSP CONCEPTS: Magic, Oscillation, Exposure DOMINANT FACULTY: Feeling THE SUMMER PERSONALITY: Those born in summer have more measured responses than those in spring. They are still enthusiastic, but may also be more critical. They tend to focus not on initiation, but on fruition. Summertime people tend to be both extroverts and introverts, with feelings being more important. Empathic impulses to become involved with other people, work, and environment are strong. Not always needing to show their accomplishments, summer people often are more willing to serve and invest time in others.
  • CANCER (June 22-July 22)- ELEMENT: Water QUALITY: Cardinal RULER: The Moon SYMBOL: The Crab MODE: Feeling MOTTO: I Feel HUMAN AGE: 21-28 THE CANCER PERSONALITY: Those born under Cancer are patient. They seek strong friendships with a high degree of trust and sharing. They are set apart, and express themselves nonverbally. They require much emotional support from their loved ones. Appreciation is not as important as expression to Cancer people.
  • LEO (July 23-August 23)- ELEMENT: Fire QUALITY: Fixed RULER: The Sun SYMBOL: The Lion MODE: Intuition MOTTO: I Create HUMAN AGE: 28-35 THE LEO PERSONALITY: Leo people bring the full force of their personalities to bare on the world. They have a strict sense of honor, and the will to stick to what they believe and reject what they don't. They are big-hearted, often giving in grand gestures. Leos like to be admired for their looks as well as for their accomplishments. Leo people love their homes and have a fierce protectiveness towards friends and family. However, they can be in danger of clinging to outdated arrangements.
  • VIRGO (August 24-Sept 22)- ELEMENT: Earth QUALITY: Mutable RULER: Mercury SYMBOL: The Virgin MODE: Sensation, Thought MOTTO: I Serve HUMAN AGE: 35-42 THE VIRGO PERSONALITY: People born under this sign are very particular about what they reveal of themselves. Their inner worlds are focused on solving problems. The future is an important goal to Virgos. A structure is very important to these people and they make excellent family-persons and co-workers. They contribute greatly to the group effort, sometimes to a fault. Virgos tend to take things literally, although they do sometimes expect that others will know their needs without having to say them verbally.
• FALL (Sept 23-Dec 21)- HUMAN AGE: 42-63, characterized by objectivity, criticism, conscious thought, and awareness. A realistic, serious, and philosophical age. Intuition, feeling, & thought are important. But sensation, the objective assessment and conscious enjoyment of sensuous pleasures, becomes a unifying theme DOMINANT FACULTY: Sensation THE FALL PERSONALITY: These people exhibit a greater ability and need to control their external environment. Rarely enthusiasts, they tend to be selective and critical. Maintenance, rather than initiation, is important. Fall people want to take part in fulfilling relationships, and tend to be more introverted, keeping feelings under control. More aware of the world around them, fall people are complex, though sometimes hidden individuals who give high priority to self-understanding and control.
  • LIBRA (Sept 23-Oct 22)- ELEMENT: Air QUALITY: Cardinal RULER: Venus SYMBOL: The Scales MODE: Thought, Sensation MOTTO: I Weigh HUMAN AGE: 42-49 THE LIBRA PERSONALITY: Those born under Libra pay considerable attention to how they relate to others. They like harmony, but can stir up trouble with their controversial views. Libras are generous, but may be blind to others' needs and therefore isolate themselves. When making decisions, Libras see both sides of the issue. They do not react well to pressure, but will assert it on others if they feel justified. Libras are full of energy, but must be careful of depression and extremes in opinion.
  • SCORPIO (Oct 23-Nov 21)- ELEMENT: Water QUALITY: Fixed RULER: Pluto SYMBOL: The Scorpion MODE: Feeling MOTTO: I Control HUMAN AGE: 49-56 THE SCORPIO PERSONALITY: Scorpio people want to have full dominance in social roles. They can be dark, sexual, and belligerent people. They are serious types, but prefer to keep their formidable weapons in reserve. Scorpios often undergo dramatic transformation, and their lives are influenced by the death/rebirth theme. They are highly connected to the unconscious. Scorpios are humorous and appreciate ironies. They must be weary of self-destructive, controlling behavior and addiction to people and ideas.
  • SAGITTARIUS (Nov 22-Dec 21)- ELEMENT: Fire QUALITY: Mutable RULER: Jupiter SYMBOL: The Archer MODE: Intuition MOTTO: I Philosophize HUMAN AGE: 56-63 THE SAGITTARIUS PERSONALITY: These people want to see the whole picture of life. They are energetic, expansive, optimistic, honest, and ethical. Sagittarians are eternal students and may reject society in favor of a higher truth. They must not be too judgmental of those who don't share their beliefs though. Although loving travel, if a Sagittarian feels at home he will certainly stay.
• WINTER (Dec 21-Mar 21)- HUMAN AGE: 63-84, showing a stillness, internalization of experience, and quieting of instinctual demands. At this period, humans’ minds turn more towards thought, religion, philosophy, spirituality, and other universal concepts. The outside world and its concerns tend to have slipped away into unimportance CUSP CONCEPTS: Prophecy, Mystery and Imagination, Sensitivity DOMINANT FACULTY: Thought THE WINTER PERSONALITY: More concerned with the larger picture, these people can be dominant types, but can also display greater flexibility, sensitivity, acceptance, and spirituality. Although quiet, they may show excitement through thoughts, ideals, and work. Distinguished by imagination and fantasy, wintertime people have a source of great creativity. Their allegiance isn't to society or personal consideration, but to the world of ideas. People born in winter are not so concerned with the world as it is, but as it could or should be.
  • CAPRICORN (Dec 22-Jan 20)- ELEMENT: Earth QUALITY: Cardinal RULER: Saturn SYMBOL: The Goat MODE: Sensation MOTTO: I Master HUMAN AGE: 63-70 THE CAPRICORN PERSONALITY: Capricorns tend to be conservative, but that doesn't stop them from achieving the heights no matter how long it takes. Capricorns acknowledge difficulty and suffering to be part of life's package. This fatalism leads them to accept their role in life, but can also lead them to be inflexible. Those born under this sign have an instinctive knowledge of power and how it works and may have a tendency to be dictatorial.
  • AQUARIUS (Jan 21-Feb 19)- ELEMENT: Air QUALITY: Fixed RULER: Uranus SYMBOL: The Water Bearer MODE: Thought MOTTO: I Universalize HUMAN AGE: 70-77 THE AQUARIUS PERSONALITY: Aquarians transcend restrictions and limitations with their somewhat childlike wisdom. These people have many idiosyncrasies and function best in unregulated environments. Aquarians are naturally open and accepting and are unable to understand when others aren't. When confronted with hostility they may fight or simply disappear. Aquarians are promoters of high ideals (scientific and universal) and are always looking for happiness in life. They are objective, and sometimes too superficial.
  • PISCES (Feb 20-March 20)- ELEMENT: Water QUALITY: Mutable RULER: Neptune SYMBOL: The Fish MODE: Feeling MOTTO: I Believe HUMAN AGE: 77-84 THE PISCES PERSONALITY: Those born under this sign can be masters of abstract expression and highly emotional. They like to be with others and alone at times too, but run the risk of becoming escapists. Extreme sensitivity make Pisceans vulnerable to depression. These people have excellent memories and are empathic and compassionate. But they must beware that others don't take advantage of them.

The Four Elements

• AIR- Because ideas and concepts are very real to them, air people may naturally follow ideals. Air sign people enjoy testing their mental faculties, and they can be very critical. Air people are quick to pick up new things, but also quick to forget. They are sometimes accused of having less-than-deep emotion because of their tendency to move from person to person, task to task, so easily. Air people are unselfconscious, but may become weary of displays of emotion or sentiment.
• EARTH- Earth people tend to relate to the world through the five senses. Tangible realities have more meaning for them than dreams and fantasies. They can be very patient and endure long, but this can be a problem if it becomes an excuse not to act. Earth people like the pleasures of the table and the bed, for either sensual or relaxing reasons. People of this element like to work with their hands and are self-sufficient, sometimes having trouble accepting help. Earth people are incisive and economical.
• FIRE- Highly confident and intuitive, fire people move through life by the seat of their pants. Fire sign people enjoy competition, and they are self-centered (but not self-indulgent). Fire people are impulsive and unpredictable, but are capable of working diligently.
• WATER- Feelings, empathy, and sympathy characterize water people. They are also very sensitive to criticism and rejection. These people have a special sense for what others need, and bringing people together is their joy. Water sign people can have a tendency to cling to others because they become so emotionally involved.

The Three Qualities

• CARDINAL- Go-getters, cardinal sign people like to start things, and want to direct their energy into one task. They are at their worst when plagued by indecision. They tend to be leaders.
• FIXED- Fixed sign people want to be left alone. They may be rebellious if put in a subordinate role. However, they are capable of exerting dominance themselves. Fixed sign people are at their worst when beset by emotional instability. Fixed sign people are not easily moved or changed.
• MUTABLE- These people love variety and change. They get bored easily and crave excitement. Although not particularly stable, mutable sign people are flexible and adaptable. They understand that the only constant is change. They are at their worst when tied down.

The Ten Planets

• THE SUN- Represents tremendous creative and generative power. Masculine in nature, Sun people tend to be forthright, demanding, and able to transmit much energy.
• THE MOON- Symbolizing the world of dreams, feelings, and powerful emotions, the Moon is feminine in orientation. Moon people are empathic and feeling, working well with others.
• MERCURY- Those born under Mercury have quickness of thought and excellent communication skills. Attention to detail, a love of games and puzzles, and quick recuperation are associated with this planet.
• VENUS- Venus people have a love of beauty, whether sensuous or idealistic. Venus people are able to warm even the coldest heart.
• MARS- People born under Mars are aggressive, adventuresome, highly motivated, and in general unstoppable.
• JUPITER- Jupiter gives those associated with it a jovial, expansive, optimistic, and lucky quality. These people try to find the most positive and constructive approach to all problems.
• SATURN- Saturn is often seen as grim, but it really represents structure, order, and responsibility. Those born under this planet have strong personal values and a strong urge to rule others.
• URANUS- This planet is associated with rebellion and individualism. Uranus people do things in an erratic fashion, releasing spontaneous energy.
• NEPTUNE- These people are profound, dreamy. and hard to pin down. Fantasy-rich, Neptune people are attracted to imaginative objectives and are able to dissolve barriers.
• PLUTO- Those born under Pluto have interest in the areas of money, power, and sexuality. This planet represents the immovable forces in our lives.

According to The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, cosmology is: "the study of the physical universe considered as a totality of phenomena in time and space; the astrophysical study of the history, structure, and constituent dynamics of the universe; a specific theory or model of this structure and these dynamics."

• The Atomists' Cosmology- This view stated that everything in the universe was made of tiny, imperceptible particles called atoms. This view came from the ancient Greeks, many centuries before the advent of modern science. These atoms floated through space, came together in whirls of undifferentiated matter, separated according to type, and formed substances (including living matter). The universe would therefore be full of worlds, some Earth-like. There was no real plan or order to these atoms, and their actions were seen as random.
• Aristotle's Cosmology- This view dominated the West for 1800 years. Solid, concentric spheres of crystal surrounded the Earth, holding the moon, sun, five known planets, and the stars (in the outermost sphere). Beyond this last sphere, absolutely nothing existed (unless you spoke to theologians who claimed that this might be the dwelling place of God). This cosmology followed the common sense of the people, which helps explain why it remained so popular. Also notice that humans are at the center of the universe!
• Copernicus' Cosmology- The sun was now at the center of the spheres and the Earth circled it! This was a major step in placing man in a proper context with the universe, although it did ruffle some feathers. However, it still maintained the common sense approach to science.
• Descartes' Cosmology- Atoms coalesced into planets, people, etc... and these planets swirled in vortices the shaped the universe. A subtle matter, called ether, filled space and the planets were dense concentrations of ether carried around by the vortices' motion. Stars were the centers of these vortices and objects formed because of the laws of motion. Thus began a view of a universe ruled by more than just the forces of random chance, and observable phenomena governed by provable laws.
• Newton's Cosmology- The universe obeyed rational, discoverable, mathematical laws. The theology of the time also allowed for the existence of other worlds, star systems, and galaxies. This came close to our own modern views.
• The Bioastronomers' Cosmology- This modern theory states that there are universal natural laws, and that the chemical building blocks of matter are universal. This view, as well as modern observation techniques, has led us to the discovery of countless planets, stars, galaxies, and many other strange phenomena. The view also takes into account the modern question of whether life can exist outside our own world. Because there are universal laws that govern the universe, we can theorize about the cosmos using mathematics to describe things we can not yet observe.

The Nature of the Universe

Black Holes

Time Travel

Extrasolar Planets

The word philosophy literally means "love of wisdom". The term is applied to any sustained reflection, the goal of which is to better understand things. Scholastically, studying philosophy provides training in disciplined analysis and clarification.

Branches of Philosophy

Philosophical Approaches

• Agnosticism- Neither believing nor disbelieving in anything
• Determinism- The theory that nothing can happen but what does happen because every event is the necessary outcome of the causes preceding it. The opposite of this theory is called Indeterminism
• Dualism- The view that a thing is made of two irreducible elements, such as the body and the mind, which are radically different
• Empiricism- The view stating that knowledge of anything that actually exists can be gained through experience
• Existentialism- Philosophy that begins with the contingent existence of the individual human being and regards that as the primary enigma from which all other understanding is pursued. The two main branches of this are religious and humanistic existentialism
• Humanism- View based on the assumption that humanity is the most important anything that exists and that we cannot have knowledge of a supernatural world if one exists
• Idealism- The philosophy that reality ultimately consists of something non-material, such as the mind or spirit
• Materialism- The philosophy that reality ultimately consists of something material
• Monism- The view that something, such as human beings, are made of one consistent whole, not multiple parts like a body and soul
• Naturalism- View that reality is explicable without reference to anything outside the natural world
• Phenomology- Approach to philosophy which tries to investigate objects of experience without raising what may be unanswerable questions about them
• Rationalism- The view stating that knowledge can be gained by the sole use of reason, without relying upon sense perception, which may be unreliable
• Solipsism- The belief that only oneself exists
• Utilitarianism- Theory of politics and ethics that judges the morality of actions by their consequences. Good is defined by pleasure and the absence of pain. The most desirable consequence is that which brings the most good to the most people

The Classical Schools

• Cynicism- The Cynics, among them the famous Diogenes, believed that the only real distinction that matters in the world is the distinction between true values and false values. All differences such as yours and mine, cooked and uncooked, private and public, were believed to be irrelevant by a Cynic. The Cynics were known for ignoring social convention
• Scepticism- Created by Pyrrho, a soldier in Alexander the Great's army, Scepticism is the theory that we can never know anything for sure. No set of beliefs is more "true" than another because we can never be certain that anything we know or experience is the final truth
• Epicureanism- The physicist Epicurus created this school from his belief that since atoms never keep the same structure for very long, our lives are fleeting. He believed that after death there is nothing, so we should attempt to live life to its fullest pleasure. Because there was no afterlife, the Epicureans thought that this would eliminate the fear that fills so much of human life
• Stoicism- Zeno of Citium started the Stoic philosophy and it came to dominate the Roman Empire. Stoics held that because suffering, adversity, and death are out of our control, we should face them with quiet dignified acceptance. Stoics believe that emotions were judgments, and not always correct. By bringing emotion under the control of reason, we can ensure proper judgments and we will then be at one with things as they actually are

The Fathers of Western Philosophy

Socrates

Plato

Aristotle

Central and South America

Maya
A civilization that flourished in present-day Mexico and northern Central America from the 19th century BCE to the 17th century CE.